Presented By: Jeff Worthington Education 635: Educating Exceptional Students Instructor: Dr. Andrew Kitchenham

2 What is Dyslexia?

Characteristics of Dyslexia 3 Dyslexia is:  A life-long language processing disorder that is neurological in origin.  A specific subgroup of all those who may have difficulty acquiring reading skills.  Not attributable to reduced cognitive ability or inadequate instruction.  Often associated with co- occurring disorders such as: ADD/ADHD, dyscalculia, affective disorders (e.g. anxiety, depression) and difficulties with coordination.  Highly familial Common Traits:  Difficulties with acquiring letter symbol and sound relationships.  Difficulties with decoding single words - likely due to deficits in phonological awareness.  Associated with difficulties differentiating between similar symbols (b,d,p,q) and poor spelling.  Secondary consequences of dyslexia include reduced reading rate, increased errors, poor reading comprehension, reduced vocabulary, fear of failure and avoidance of reading.

Defining Dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. Adopted by the International Dyslexia Association (2002) 4 Like many other exceptionalities, dyslexia occurs across a continuum of severity and may be diagnosed with other co-occurring difficulties. Muter & Snowling (2009)

Prevalence Children with dyslexia form a heterogeneous grouping with complex behavioural profiles. Neuhoff, Bruder, Bartling, Warnke, & Remschmidt (2012) The most generally accepted prevalence rate for dyslexia is 5 to 10 percent of the school age population, with more males being diagnosed with dyslexia than females. This rate is generally accepted across cultures. Pennington (1990) Ziegler, Perry, Ma-Wtatt, Ladner, Schulte-Korne (2003) 5

Etiology Dyslexia is considered to be a neurological disorder  Five factors that can affect brain development include: Genetics- encoded information in DNA passed on from parent to offspring that directs growth and inherited traits. Environmental stimuli- environmental experiences that stimulate the brain and create synaptic structures necessary for dynamic circuitry. Nutrition- Necessary for correct proliferation and myelination of brain cells. Steroids- Natural hormonal substances [e.g. stress hormones, testosterone, etc.] that may alter brain development. Teratogens- foreign substances that may alter brain development [e.g. viruses, alcohol, etc.]. Byrnes and Wasik (2009)  Numerous research studies (twin, familial and adoption studies) demonstrate that heredity plays a strong role (approx. 50% probability) in acquiring dyslexia. Muter and Snowling (2009)  Geneticists speculate that chromosomes six and fifteen show linkages to phonological decoding skills. Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2005) 6

Dyslexia and the Brain Through fMRI, when given tasks related to reading, researchers have discovered significant differences in brain activity between individuals with dyslexia and fluent readers. Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2005) 7

Pedagogical Interventions Identify children at risk for dyslexia as early as possible by administering tests of letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, single word reading and fluency (as may be appropriate) and discuss family history with parents. Provide structured, explicit, intensive and direct instruction with phonemic awareness skills and decoding strategies as early as possible for maximum effect. Provide multi-sensory, structured language instruction: See it, hear it, say it, touch it. Provide older students with adaptations and technology based tools to support learning and reduce frustration (e.g. more time, reduced output, reader/scribe, Kurzweil, word processor, specialized fonts (e.g. Open Dyslexic), speech to text software, etc.). Provide supports for comorbid disorders (including counselling for anxiety management). 8

Pedagogical Interventions Findings suggest that the nature of the remedial educational intervention is critical to successful outcomes in children with reading disabilities and that the use of evidenced- based phonological reading intervention facilitates the development of those neural systems that underlie skilled reading. Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2005) Training in letter–sound knowledge and in phoneme awareness brings about improvements in decoding, and these can be seen in non-word reading. It seems that this form of intervention is effective whether it be provided very early, shortly after formal reading instruction has started, or at a later date, though the longer intervention is delayed, the likely greater the impact on motivation to read and hence on print exposure…..no matter what the approach, many children with reading difficulties or ‘dyslexia’ require an individualized approach that is ongoing and many need to continue through the school years. Snowling and Hume (2011) …serious reading difficulties can be prevented in most students with dyslexia if the right kind of instruction is provided with sufficient intensity early in development. Torgesen, Foorman & Wagner (2007) 9

References: Byrnes, J. P. & Wasik, B. A. (2009). Language and literacy development. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Muter, V. & Snowling, M. J. (2009). Children at familial risk of dyslexia: Practical implications from an at-risk study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 14(1), Neuhoff N., Bruder J., Bartling J., Warnke A., Remschmidt H., Muller-Myhsok, B., Schulte-Korne, G. (2012). Evidence for the late MMN as a neurophysiological endophenotype for dyslexia. PLoS ONE 7(5): e doi: /journal.pone Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Dyslexia: Specific reading disability. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), Snowling, M. J. & Hume, C. (2010). Evidence-based interventions for reading and language difficulties: Creating a virtuous circle. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 1–23. Torgesen, J. K., Foorman B. R. & Wagner R. K. (2007). Dyslexia: A brief for educators, parents, and legislators in Florida. Florida Center for Reading Research, 8, Ziegler, J.C., Perry, C., Ma-Wtatt, A., Ladner, D. and Schulte-Korne, G. (2003). Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language specific or universal? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 86(3): 169–