protected areas-habitat primarily managed to maintain biodiversity -protecting intact biological communities is the most effective way to protect biodiversity and are established in three ways: 1) government action 2) purchase of land by private organizations Ex. Nature Conservancy 3) traditional societies wishing to preserve lands to maintain their way of life -80 % established since 1962 and currently cover about 13% of earth’s surface Figure 15.1, 15.5

15.1 The world’s terrestrial (green) and marine (blue) protected areas

Figure 15.5 80 % pna established since 1962 and currently cover about 13% of earth’s surface

IUCN Classification of Protected Areas International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has developed the following system of classification for protected areas: 1) strict nature reserves and wilderness areas -protect natural organisms and processes in an undisturbed state -for scientific study, education, environmental monitoring, and maintenance of genetic variation -wilderness areas may also be maintained for sustainable recreational and economic activities Ex. parts of Padre Island National Seashore and other large protected areas 2) national parks -large areas of outstanding scenic and natural beauty of international and national importance Ex. Big Bend National Park, Guadalupe Mountains National Park

IUCN Classification of Protected Areas 3) national monuments -smaller areas designed to preserve unique natural areas of special national interest Ex. San Antonio Missions National Historic Park 4) Habitat/species management areas -similar to strict nature reserves, but some human manipulation may be needed and some controlled harvesting may be permitted -National Wildlife Refuge system and in Texas, Aransas National Wildlife Refuge 1-4 are strict protected areas as their primary mission is protection biodiversity (6% earth’s surface)

IUCN Classification of Protected Areas 5) Protected landscapes and seascapes -areas that allow for interaction of people and the environment through traditional nondestructive use of natural resources while providing chances for tourism and recreation -grazing land, orchards, or fishing villages Ex. Big Bend Ranch Natural Area 6) Managed-resource protected areas -allows for sustained production of natural resources in a manner that ensures the preservation of some aspects of biodiversity -most of the national forests located in Texas

-there were 160,000 IUCN I-VI protected areas worldwide covering about 30 million square kilometers on land and two million at sea (13 % of earth's total land surface but only 6% in strict protected areas) Table 15.1 -even less area in marine protected areas with most being small with less than 2% protected and as much as 10% may be needed Figure 15.3, Read Box 15.1, The rise of giant marine protected areas -Recent studies from Brazil and West Africa show that protected areas are effective in keeping land intact by preserving natural vegetation Figure 15.4

15.3 The proportion of the continental shelf covered by marine protected areas

Figure 15.4 Protected natural areas are able to prevent damage to the natural forests

Three main criteria used to set priorities for creating a protected area: 1) distinctiveness Does it contain rare endemics? unique ecosystems? 2) endangerment Does it contain vulnerable, threatened, or endangered species? communities? 3) utility Are the species/communities beneficial to man? Ex. The establishment of Komodo National Park in Indonesia Figure 15.7 (=Malaysia; island archipelago off SE coast Asia) 1) distinctiveness -largest lizard 2) endangerment -occur only on a few small islands 3) utility -major tourist attraction

15.7 The Komodo dragon of Indonesia is the largest living monitor lizard

Species approaches to establish pnas 1) species approaches -species are referred to as focal species- species that provide impetus to protect an area -may be rare, endangered , keystone, or culturally significant species -two types: a. indicator species- a species associated with an endangered biological community or set of unique ecosystem processes Ex. spotted owl in the U.S. Northwest is an indicator of old growth forest Ex. red-cockaded woodpecker is an indicator for old-growth, longleaf pine forest in U.S. Southeast b. flagship species or charismatic megafauna- species that capture public attention, have symbolic power, and are crucial to ecotourism -helped in the establishment of many national parks Ex. 18 Project Tiger Reserves established in India where tigers serve as an umbrella species as these pnas extend protection to other species

15.8 The northern spotted owl is an indicator species for old-growth forest

Biologivcal diversity indicator approaches to establish pnas 2) Biological diversity indicator approaches -certain organisms used as indicators when specific data about whole communities is lacking -plant and bird diversity are often good indicators of diversity in a community - may include data from Centers of biodiversity -key areas of the world with high biodiversity and endemism and are under immediate threat of species extinctions and habitat destruction -often called hot spots for preservation Figure 15.9, Table 15.2, Figure 15.10

15.9(A) Sixteen tropical rain forest hot spots of high endemism and significant threat of imminent extinctions (B) Eighteen hotspots in other ecosystems. Yellow dots indicate armed conflicts .

15. 10 Peaks of species richness (red=most) in the mainland USA 15.10 Peaks of species richness (red=most) in the mainland USA. Hawaii has the greatest.

Ecosystem approaches to establish pnas 3) Ecosystem approaches -protects species, community members, and ecosystem services -easier to demonstrate value to policy makers -goal is to represent as many different communities as possible -uses data like that in Figure 15. 11for 13 major terrestrial biomes -sometimes gap analysis is used in determining pnas

15.11 For 13 major biomes, percent of the area converted to other uses, and that of the area protected from conversion. C:P is ratio of percent converted to the percent protected.

Gap Analysis Six steps in gap analysis: 1) Conservation units are established. These include data on species, ecosystems, and physical features of a region. 2) Conservation goals are determined for the units. Ex. How much area or rare species will be protected? 3) Existing protected areas are reviewed to identify gaps in coverage. 4) Additional areas are identified to meet the conservation goals or fill the gaps. -often uses GIS data and census data for rare or endangered species Figures 15.13 & 15.14 5. These additional areas are acquired for conservation and a management plan is developed. 6. New conservation areas are monitored to determine if they are meeting their goals or whether management plans need to be modified.

15.13 The imminent extinction of 794 animals and plant species is mapped at 595 sites

15.14 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) integrates data for display on maps.