Major Perspectives of Psychology By Ms. R. Marcilliat Adapted from AP Psychology TOPSS List Serv

AP PSYCHOLOGY EXAM REVIEW 2015 SUPER, DUPER IMPORTANT STUFF THAT IT WOULD BEHOOVE YOU TO STUDY SUPER, DUPER IMPORTANT STUFF THAT IT WOULD BEHOOVE YOU TO STUDY THINK ABOUT THE FACT THAT ALL OF WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED THIS YEAR CAN BE SUBCATEGORIZED IN THESE PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES. THINK ABOUT THE FACT THAT ALL OF WHAT YOU’VE LEARNED THIS YEAR CAN BE SUBCATEGORIZED IN THESE PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVES. THIS IS A REVIEW AND IS INTENDED TO SERVE AS A COURSE SUPPLEMENT. THIS IS A REVIEW AND IS INTENDED TO SERVE AS A COURSE SUPPLEMENT.

Perspectives Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic Behaviorism Behaviorism Humanism Humanism Cognitive Cognitive Evolutionary Evolutionary Biological/Biomedical Biological/Biomedical Sociocultural Sociocultural

I. Psychodynamic The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses. The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses.

Our personality is a conflict between our (iceberg metaphor): Our personality is a conflict between our (iceberg metaphor): Id…(below water line…the little child) Id…(below water line…the little child) Ego (mostly above water line…child learns they can’t act on every impulse) Ego (mostly above water line…child learns they can’t act on every impulse) Superego (mostly under surface of water line…last to develop…pursues perfection Superego (mostly under surface of water line…last to develop…pursues perfection Id and superego battle…leaves ego to referee Id and superego battle…leaves ego to referee

Defense Mechanisms  (Note: Below you have a summary of Freud’s Defense Mechanisms that you are most likely to encounter on the AP PSY Exam. Use class handouts/notes/text/D&S for examples.)  Freud's Defense Mechanisms include:  Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false Denial  Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target Displacement  Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint Intellectualization  Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others Projection  Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications Rationalization  Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear Reaction Formation Reaction Formation  Regression: going back to acting as a child Regression  Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious Repression  Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions Sublimation  Suppression: a conscious attempt to push something out of your mind

Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is the form of treating psychological disorders, invented by Freud. Psychoanalysis is the form of treating psychological disorders, invented by Freud. It is famous for the couch. It is famous for the couch.

A. What are Psychoanalytic methods of therapy? 1. Free Association – patient reports anything that comes to his/her mind. 1. Free Association – patient reports anything that comes to his/her mind. The psychoanalyst listens for links & themes that might tie the patient’s fragmentary thoughts or remarks together. The psychoanalyst listens for links & themes that might tie the patient’s fragmentary thoughts or remarks together.

B. Dream analysis: Dreams have two types of content: Dreams have two types of content: Manifest content- actual events in dream. Manifest content- actual events in dream. Latent content – hidden message in dream. Latent content – hidden message in dream. Freud thought that each dream represents a form of wish fulfillment. The wish may be disguised, but it is always there. Freud thought that each dream represents a form of wish fulfillment. The wish may be disguised, but it is always there.

C. Transference Feelings of love or other emotions (hatred) are expressed toward the therapist. Feelings of love or other emotions (hatred) are expressed toward the therapist. These feelings are actually unconsciously felt toward others; the patient is projecting these feelings onto the therapist. These feelings are actually unconsciously felt toward others; the patient is projecting these feelings onto the therapist. This provides clues about the client’s feelings about these other people. This provides clues about the client’s feelings about these other people.

D. Hypnosis Hypnosis is a psychoanalytic therapeutic technique. Hypnosis is a psychoanalytic therapeutic technique. Supposedly reaches into the unconscious Supposedly reaches into the unconscious

Psychoanalysis summary All methods deal with accessing the unconscious mind. All methods deal with accessing the unconscious mind. Psychoanalysis is therapist-centered, meaning the therapist has all the answers, not the patient. Psychoanalysis is therapist-centered, meaning the therapist has all the answers, not the patient.

Personality assessment Psychoanalysts use projective tests like the Rorschach Ink Blot test or the TAT test Psychoanalysts use projective tests like the Rorschach Ink Blot test or the TAT test

TAT – Assessing achievement motivation Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murray, a student of psychoanalytic thought. The TAT consists of numerous cards with black and white and grayscale pictures. These pictures where chosen for two reasons. First, they are ambiguous to some extent and portray emotion and thought without specifying details. An example would be a silhouette of a man looking off into the distance. While there is obvious emotional and intellectual activity, the details are not revealed. Second, they correspond to the major themes of psychoanalytic thought, such as the oedipal complex, where the son develops an attraction for the mother and then identifies with the father. There are relationship cards and several that portray both sexual and aggressive undertones without depicted actual violence, aggression, or sexual activity. AllPsych: Dr. Christopher L. Heffner

Criticisms of Freud’s theory: 1. Freud had no scientific data to support his theories. 1. Freud had no scientific data to support his theories. 2. Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) cannot be observed. 2. Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) cannot be observed. 3. Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the fact. 3. Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the fact. 4. Observations not representative of population (very sexist and not multicultural). 4. Observations not representative of population (very sexist and not multicultural).

Pros of Freud’s theory 1. Argued that childhood experiences are important in personality development. 1. Argued that childhood experiences are important in personality development. 2. Information outside of awareness does influence us. 2. Information outside of awareness does influence us. 3. Defense mechanisms—good descriptions of some of our behaviors. 3. Defense mechanisms—good descriptions of some of our behaviors.

II. Behaviorism

Behaviorism By the 1950s, Psychoanalysis seemed very unscientific. Behaviorists will bring science back into psychology, even if they overdo it a little. By the 1950s, Psychoanalysis seemed very unscientific. Behaviorists will bring science back into psychology, even if they overdo it a little. Behaviorism is NOT interested in the unconscious mind since it cannot be observed in a laboratory. Behaviorism is NOT interested in the unconscious mind since it cannot be observed in a laboratory.

Very telling quote!! Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar- man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. --John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930 Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar- man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. --John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930

Thorndike “law of effect” Basically, he was Skinner “lite.” The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that responses closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. Conversely, if the situation is followed by discomfort, the connections to the situation will become weaker and the behavior of response is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated.

Ivan Pavlov He was not a psychologist but a Russian physiologist. He discovered classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is associative learning. He trained a dog to drool to a bell. He was not a psychologist but a Russian physiologist. He discovered classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is associative learning. He trained a dog to drool to a bell.

Dog associates food with bell.

B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner is the most famous of the Behaviorists. He is famous for operant conditioning. Operant conditioning (aka shaping) is learning through reinforcements (rewards) and punishments. B.F. Skinner is the most famous of the Behaviorists. He is famous for operant conditioning. Operant conditioning (aka shaping) is learning through reinforcements (rewards) and punishments.

Behaviorism Albert Bandura did a famous experiment that said our behavior does not have to be classically conditioned or operant conditioned. We can simply observe behavior and copy it. Albert Bandura did a famous experiment that said our behavior does not have to be classically conditioned or operant conditioned. We can simply observe behavior and copy it. We have a lovely tee shirt to remind us! Thanks, Yildiz. We have a lovely tee shirt to remind us! Thanks, Yildiz.

Behaviorism The behavioral perspective can explain: The behavioral perspective can explain: why people get addicted to gambling (positive reinforcement = encourages a behavior by adding something pleasurable) why people get addicted to gambling (positive reinforcement = encourages a behavior by adding something pleasurable) why someone takes an aspirin to remove/ subtract the pain of a headache (negative reinforcement = encourages a behavior when an unpleasant condition is removed when the desired behavior is met) why someone takes an aspirin to remove/ subtract the pain of a headache (negative reinforcement = encourages a behavior when an unpleasant condition is removed when the desired behavior is met)

Reinforcement, continued The behavioral perspective can explain: The behavioral perspective can explain: positive punishment = adding something unpleasant to discourage a behavior…i.e.,, you break dress code and receive a referral positive punishment = adding something unpleasant to discourage a behavior…i.e.,, you break dress code and receive a referral negative punishment (also known as omission training!) = subtracting/removing something pleasant to discourage a behavior…i.e., you break your curfew, your parents take your car away for a week negative punishment (also known as omission training!) = subtracting/removing something pleasant to discourage a behavior…i.e., you break your curfew, your parents take your car away for a week

Behavioral Therapy Focuses on maladaptive behaviors (mal means bad) and changing them. Focuses on maladaptive behaviors (mal means bad) and changing them. Token economy uses positive reinforcement to get large groups of students or mental ward patients or employees to do something like clean up or attend group therapy…i.e., $100 each if you pass your exam…just an example Token economy uses positive reinforcement to get large groups of students or mental ward patients or employees to do something like clean up or attend group therapy…i.e., $100 each if you pass your exam…just an example

Behavioral therapy Systematic desensitization – treatment of phobias and anxiety. Treat the behavior of not freaking out over spiders (or pickles). Systematic desensitization – treatment of phobias and anxiety. Treat the behavior of not freaking out over spiders (or pickles).

Behavioral therapy Aversive conditioning – There is a drug that when mixed with alcohol, makes you sick. Motivated alcoholics will take this and begin to associate the sickness with alcohol and possibly stop drinking. Aversive conditioning – There is a drug that when mixed with alcohol, makes you sick. Motivated alcoholics will take this and begin to associate the sickness with alcohol and possibly stop drinking.

Behaviorism Summary Behaviorism says we do what we do because of classical conditioning, operant conditioning or we simply learn the behavior from watching or copying it. Behaviorism says we do what we do because of classical conditioning, operant conditioning or we simply learn the behavior from watching or copying it. In its extreme, they think we are simply rats in a cage pressing buttons. WE HAVE NO FREE WILL! In its extreme, they think we are simply rats in a cage pressing buttons. WE HAVE NO FREE WILL!

III. Humanism

Humanistic Humanism came about in the 1960s in reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self- actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good. We are not rats in a cage! We are not id-driven animals! We are humans with free will.

Humanism Abraham Maslow said we have a hierarchy of needs. Abraham Maslow said we have a hierarchy of needs.

Humanism Carl Rogers revolutionized talk therapy. His therapy is client-centered, where the client has all the answers instead of the therapist. Therapists treat the client with unconditional positive regard (no judgments). Group therapy comes from Humanism. Carl Rogers revolutionized talk therapy. His therapy is client-centered, where the client has all the answers instead of the therapist. Therapists treat the client with unconditional positive regard (no judgments). Group therapy comes from Humanism.

Incongruent (incompatible) self: neurosis REALIDEAL REAL IDEAL Incongruent self: psychosis (shattered self)

Fully-Functioning Individual Congruence! Open to experiences Feeling of freedom Creativity Carl Rogers’ fully functioning Individual

Humanism summary Humanists are really touchy-feely, but without them we are just rats in a cage. Humanists are really touchy-feely, but without them we are just rats in a cage. Rogers and Maslow put the “human” element back into psychology and therapy. Rogers and Maslow put the “human” element back into psychology and therapy. Their philosophy: We are all humans striving to maximize our potential. A therapist’s job is to remove obstacles to self- actualization. Their philosophy: We are all humans striving to maximize our potential. A therapist’s job is to remove obstacles to self- actualization. Positive psychology comes from Humanism. Positive psychology comes from Humanism.

IV. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Perspective What does the word cognitive mean? How about cognition? Recognition? What does the word cognitive mean? How about cognition? Recognition? It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems. It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems. Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive thoughts of a person. Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive thoughts of a person.

Cognitive Psychologists 1968, Atkinson-Shiffrin model for STM memory 1968, Atkinson-Shiffrin model for STM memory Supported idea that information, if not encoded, is lost Supported idea that information, if not encoded, is lost

Cognitive Psychologists 1974, Baddeley and Hitch studied memory. They are famous for this model for short-term memory (STM). 1974, Baddeley and Hitch studied memory. They are famous for this model for short-term memory (STM). Today, dominant view but research continues… Today, dominant view but research continues… Know the names of the researchers, the timelines of studies, and that STM models of memory differ. Know the names of the researchers, the timelines of studies, and that STM models of memory differ.

Cognitive Psychologists Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in children. Jean Piaget studied cognitive development in children.

Cognitive perspective on depression We are depressed because we are irrational. Our expectations are too high and misplaced. We want everyone to love us and accept us. We want every thing to go our way. We stay angry about stuff that happened a looong time ago. WE MUST CHANGE THE WAY WE THINK TO BE HAPPY AND SUCCESSFUL. We are depressed because we are irrational. Our expectations are too high and misplaced. We want everyone to love us and accept us. We want every thing to go our way. We stay angry about stuff that happened a looong time ago. WE MUST CHANGE THE WAY WE THINK TO BE HAPPY AND SUCCESSFUL.

Cognitive Therapy Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive (bad) thoughts. Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and William Glasser are famous for reality therapy. They challenged their patients to consider, “Are Cognitive therapy is about changing the maladaptive (bad) thoughts. Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and William Glasser are famous for reality therapy. They challenged their patients to consider, “Are my thoughts realistic or rational?” my thoughts realistic or rational?” Cognitive therapy also “educates” Cognitive therapy also “educates” the client and teaches them proper the client and teaches them proper behaviors/thoughts behaviors/thoughts

V. Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits — such as memory, perception, or language — from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits — such as memory, perception, or language — from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Applies Charles Darwin’s Applies Charles Darwin’s principles of evolution. principles of evolution.

Evolutionary Psychology This branch explains why humans do what they do in terms of adaptive value (survival of the species). Why do women usually prefer the guy on the right for long-term relationships? This branch explains why humans do what they do in terms of adaptive value (survival of the species). Why do women usually prefer the guy on the right for long-term relationships?

Evolutionary Psychology Why do women spend so much money on a weekly basis but men will surprise their wives with a brand new car (without asking her)? Why do women spend so much money on a weekly basis but men will surprise their wives with a brand new car (without asking her)? Evolutionary psychologists try to explain this behavior with comparisons to hunter-gather cultures. Evolutionary psychologists try to explain this behavior with comparisons to hunter-gather cultures. Why do women have more bug phobia s? Why do women have more bug phobia s?

VI. Biological Perspective (Neuroscience) This perspective is among the most respected right now. Researchers focus on our brain, nervous system, neurotransmitters and hormones to explain our behaviors. This perspective is among the most respected right now. Researchers focus on our brain, nervous system, neurotransmitters and hormones to explain our behaviors.

Biological Perspective “I don’t know why you are depressed or anxious, but here is some medicine!” “I don’t know why you are depressed or anxious, but here is some medicine!” Love is simply oxytocin in your brain. Love is simply oxytocin in your brain.

Surgeries The Lobotomy damages your frontal lobe to relieve anxiety. The Lobotomy damages your frontal lobe to relieve anxiety.

Surgery Cut the Corpus callosum to keep seizures from spreading to the other side of the brain. Cut the Corpus callosum to keep seizures from spreading to the other side of the brain.

Electroconvulsive Therapy ECT

Common medicines Prozac – antidepressant – blocks reuptake of serotonin. Prozac – antidepressant – blocks reuptake of serotonin. Xanax – anti-anxiety (side effect of drowsiness) Xanax – anti-anxiety (side effect of drowsiness) Thorazine – replaced the lobotomy Thorazine – replaced the lobotomy

VII. Sociocultural (Social-cultural) How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures How are we alike as members of one human family? How are we alike as members of one human family? How do we differ as products of our environment? How do we differ as products of our environment?

Someone from the sociocultural Someone from the sociocultural perspective might explore how expressions of beauty or leadership vary across cultures.

Remember this guy? Theorist: Lev Vgotsky Theorist: Lev Vgotsky What develops: As children plan and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their understanding of the world. What develops: As children plan and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their understanding of the world. How development proceeds: Approach emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members. How development proceeds: Approach emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members. Principles: Development is a reciprocal transaction between people in the child’s environment and the child. Principles: Development is a reciprocal transaction between people in the child’s environment and the child. Other key terms: social interactions, zone of proximal development (ZPD)…if you don’t remember these terms, look them up!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Other key terms: social interactions, zone of proximal development (ZPD)…if you don’t remember these terms, look them up!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!