Issues in Developmental Psychology Nature and Nurture Heredity imposes some limits on what a person can become. Home, education, nutrition, etc. can evoke positive and negative influences. Resilience: the ability to bounce back Vulnerabilities Difficult temperament, genetic disorders Protective factors High intelligence, good coordination, easy-going personality

Stages or No Stages Quantitative changes — height Qualitative changes — advancements in logical thinking

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Important Concepts: Changes in schemes underlie four stages of cognitive development Each stage reflects a qualitatively different way of reasoning and understanding the world Stages occur in fixed sequence Accomplishments of one stage provide the foundation for the next stage

Children throughout the world seem to progress through the stages in the same order, but they show individual differences in the rate they pass through them Each child’s rate is influenced by the level of maturation and experience

Transition from one stage to another is gradual, not abrupt Children often show aspects of two stages while going through transitions

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Organization Human’s have a basic tendency to organize knowledge! Mental process that uses specific experiences to make inferences that are generalized to new experiences ADAPTATION Humans are hard wired to adapt to their environment.

Schemes A cognitive structure or concept used to identify and interpret information’

Piaget conceptualized two processes for adaptation two processes for adaptation. Assimilation The process by which new objects, events, or experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes A child who calls any male stranger “Daddy ” We fit new information into existing schemes. We have to “stick” new knowledge into prior knowledge that we already have.

When we can’t relate to an existing scheme, we have to form a new one! Accommodation The process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created Incorporates new objects, events, experiences, or information THIS IS LEARNING!!

EQUILIBRATION Mental process motivating humans to keep schemes in balance When we achieve balance between assimilation and accommodation If we apply a particular scheme, and the scheme works … we are satisfied.

WHEN WE CAN’T MAKE IT MAKE SENSE Scheme does not produce satisfying result. DISEQUILIBRIUM Brains are hard wired to DISLIKE THIS IS COGNITIVE DISSONANCE PRIME time for learning

NEW INFO Can relate to prior facts Can’t relate, doesn’t fit Can explain using what we already know Can’t explain, Must modify or adjust thinking ASSIMILATIONACCOMODATION

Assimilation Accommodation

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) Infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and their motor activities Actions and body movements Infant’s behavior gradually moves from mostly reflexive to complex and intelligent Infant learns to respond to and manipulate objects and use them in goal-directed activity Object Permanence Realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Symbolic Function The understanding that one thing can stand for another An object, a word, a drawing The use of words to present object Orange - both a color and a fruit Pretend Play Imagining a block is a car Imagining a doll is a real baby

Pre-operational child Are ego centric – tend to center on their own viewpoint. Does not necessarily mean they are selfish or egotistical. THEORY OF MIND Developing THEORY OF MIND – have a difficult time understanding how someone else’s mind works.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete Stage (7-11 or 12 years) Reversibility Realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally Conservation Concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away

Concrete Stage Children and adolescents can think logically about real things - (concrete) things

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operations (11 or 12 years and beyond) Preadolescents and adolescents can apply logical thought to abstract, verbal, and hypothetical situations and to problems in the past, present, or future The world of adolescents

Hypothetic-Deductive Thinking Ability to base logical reasoning on a hypothetical premise Comprehend abstract subjects like philosophy and politics and become interested in the world of ideas Begin to formulate their own theories and think of what might be Conceive of “perfect” solutions to the world’s and their own problems Ability to engage in proportional reasoning.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operations (continued) Naïve Idealism A type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems Teens with divorced parents may idealize the non-custodial parent

Imaginary Audience Adolescents believe that they are or will be the focus of attention in social situations and that others will be as critical or approving as they are of themselves Teens spend many hours in front of the mirror trying to please this audience

Personal Fable An exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility May be the basis for adolescent risk taking Many believe they are somehow indestructible and protected from misfortunes that befall others

LEV VYGOTSKY

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach Vygotsky hypothesized that much of a child’s cognitive development results from the internalization of information acquired socially, primarily through language. Children come equipped with basic skills Perception Ability to pay attention Certain memory capacities

Zone of Proximal Development Range of cognitive tasks that a child cannot yet complete but can learn to do through the guidance of an older child or adult

ZPD Level of independent performance Level of assisted performance ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Time ZPD 1 Assisted Independent ZPD 2 Independent Assisted ZPD 3 Independent Assisted DYNAMICS OF THE ZONE

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach Scaffolding Term actually coined by Jerome Brunner Type of instruction in which an adult (or more advanced individual,) adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match an individual’s present level of ability

Direct instructions are given First for unfamiliar tasks As competency increases the more advanced individual gradually withdraws from direct and active teaching The learner continues toward independent mastery of the task Parent helps child ride bike by holding it, lets go as child can balance and ride by themselves.

Naturally occurs within the context of parent-child interaction Helping a child learn how to put shapes into the right holes Tools mediate the learning experience Metacognition Self Regulation

Adolescents and Adults Apprentice model May learn from peers May learn from other adults (not necessarily family members)