Land Degradation in North Africa Higher Geography Case Study: The Sahel

Introduction When soil is bare, it can easily be blown away by the wind or washed away by rain. When soil is bare, it can easily be blown away by the wind or washed away by rain. This is called soil erosion. This is called soil erosion. If a lot of soil is eroded it becomes less and less fertile (degradation ) until the land cannot be farmed and it becomes useless, usually as a result of human activities. This is called desertification. If a lot of soil is eroded it becomes less and less fertile (degradation ) until the land cannot be farmed and it becomes useless, usually as a result of human activities. This is called desertification.

Location The Sahel runs parallel to the southern edge of the Sahara Desert from the west coast to the east coast of Africa. The average width of the Sahel is 500km. Its proximity to the Sahara is one of the principal reasons it is prone to desertification.

Climate Total annual rainfall is low, ranging between 200mm in the northern Sahel to 500 mm in southern Sahel. Total annual rainfall is low, ranging between 200mm in the northern Sahel to 500 mm in southern Sahel. Rainfall is unreliable and highly variable. Rainfall is unreliable and highly variable. Rainfall occurs in a very intense tropical downpour, creating high potential erosivity. Rainfall occurs in a very intense tropical downpour, creating high potential erosivity.

ITCZ The rainfall pattern in the Sahel region is a result of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which migrates across the region each year. The rainfall pattern in the Sahel region is a result of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which migrates across the region each year. During the dry season, Tropical Continental air is dominant along with dry Harmattan winds blowing across the Sahara. During the dry season, Tropical Continental air is dominant along with dry Harmattan winds blowing across the Sahara.

Natural Environment Range of species and vegetation decreases Soil depth decreases and soil erodibility increases Total rainfall decreases and rainfall reliability decreases Soil moisture decreases due to increase in sand content

Traditional way of life Most people are herders of sheep, camels or goats. They move from area to area to find enough water and grazing land. Most people are herders of sheep, camels or goats. They move from area to area to find enough water and grazing land. They are called nomadic herders. They are called nomadic herders.

Causes of rural land degradation in the Sahel The causes of rural land degradation in the Sahel cannot be attributed to any one factor, but an interaction of a wide range of both physical and human variables. The causes of rural land degradation in the Sahel cannot be attributed to any one factor, but an interaction of a wide range of both physical and human variables.

Physical Factors Physical Although the Sahel should get mm of rain each year, the rainfall is very unreliable. Some years are wetter than average and some are much dryer.

Desertification Physical Although the Sahel should get mm of rain each year, the rainfall is very unreliable. Some years are wetter than average and some are much dryer. With very little rain, few crops can grow so there were few roots to hold the soil together. At the same time, the soil dries out and is easily blown or washed away. The soil is eroded until some of the land is turned to desert.

Unpredictable Climate Burkina Faso’s cotton crop destroyed by flash floods in 1994, 1996 & Burkina Faso’s cotton crop destroyed by flash floods in 1994, 1996 & , 000 tonnes of emergency food aid were required by Burkina Faso to deal with food shortages caused by drought. 67, 000 tonnes of emergency food aid were required by Burkina Faso to deal with food shortages caused by drought.

Human Factors Improved medical care resulting in a reduced death rate, coupled with high birth rates means that rapid population growth is occurring in the Sahel. Improved medical care resulting in a reduced death rate, coupled with high birth rates means that rapid population growth is occurring in the Sahel. In countries such as Burkina Faso and Mali populations are increasing by at a rate of 2.5% per year (while at the same time food production increases by only 1% year) In countries such as Burkina Faso and Mali populations are increasing by at a rate of 2.5% per year (while at the same time food production increases by only 1% year)

Overcultivation Rising populations have also forced farmers to increase the amount of land utilised for arable farming. Rising populations have also forced farmers to increase the amount of land utilised for arable farming. This has led to the cultivation of marginal areas (edge of the Sahara). This has led to the cultivation of marginal areas (edge of the Sahara). These are not a viable option in terms of sustained crop production and as a result cultivating them accelerates the process of desertification. These are not a viable option in terms of sustained crop production and as a result cultivating them accelerates the process of desertification.

Overgrazing Places pressure on certain grazing areas particularly around wells, lakes and rivers. Places pressure on certain grazing areas particularly around wells, lakes and rivers. The concentration of herds in these areas results in vegetation being stripped down to its roots, leaving soil exposed. The concentration of herds in these areas results in vegetation being stripped down to its roots, leaving soil exposed. Compaction of the soil by trampling reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil and increases run off. Compaction of the soil by trampling reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil and increases run off.

Deforestation (1) Since 1990, 90% of forests have been cleared in the Ethiopian Highlands. Since 1990, 90% of forests have been cleared in the Ethiopian Highlands. Deforestation removes the binding effect of tree roots and prevents the trees from reducing wind speed. Deforestation removes the binding effect of tree roots and prevents the trees from reducing wind speed. The shortage of fire wood means that more and more families are having to resort to animal dung and crop residues for their domestic energy requirements. The shortage of fire wood means that more and more families are having to resort to animal dung and crop residues for their domestic energy requirements.

Deforestation (2) The dung and crop residues would normally be used as fertiliser so the soil is further degraded as it is deprived of essential nutrients. The dung and crop residues would normally be used as fertiliser so the soil is further degraded as it is deprived of essential nutrients. In the long term this will affect crop yields. In the long term this will affect crop yields.

Urbanisation Urbanisation has led to an increased demand for firewood. Urbanisation has led to an increased demand for firewood. Large areas of forest are cut down and the wood is often turned into charcoal for ease of transport. Large areas of forest are cut down and the wood is often turned into charcoal for ease of transport. This process is extremely inefficient and half of the energy of the wood is lost during conversion. This process is extremely inefficient and half of the energy of the wood is lost during conversion.

Growth of cash crops During the twentieth century some farmers in the Sahel moved away from traditional techniques and began growing cash crops such as cotton and rice. During the twentieth century some farmers in the Sahel moved away from traditional techniques and began growing cash crops such as cotton and rice. This monoculture often combined with inappropriate farming techniques has rendered the soil infertile in many areas. This monoculture often combined with inappropriate farming techniques has rendered the soil infertile in many areas.

Physical consequences of land degradation The increasing frequency of drought periods, the farming of marginal areas along the northern boundary of the Sahel and deforestation have led to the southwards expansion of the Sahara desert. The increasing frequency of drought periods, the farming of marginal areas along the northern boundary of the Sahel and deforestation have led to the southwards expansion of the Sahara desert.

In the last 50 years, 65 million hectares of the Sahel have turned to desert. In Sudan the Sahara has advanced by 100km in 17years. Desertification is now estimated to be spreading at a rate of 1.5 million hectares per year in the Sahel.

Physical Consequences Rills and gullies Rills and gullies Loss of topsoil Loss of topsoil Salinisation Salinisation

Social and economic consequences of land degradation Malnutrition and starvation – The failure of crops year after year leads to starvation and death eg: Sudan and Ethiopia (mid 1980’s). Malnutrition and starvation – The failure of crops year after year leads to starvation and death eg: Sudan and Ethiopia (mid 1980’s). Cash crop farming can also lead to malnutrition. Cash crop farming can also lead to malnutrition.

Migration Many people have now migrated away from the Sahel. Many people have now migrated away from the Sahel. This has led to the loss of traditional farming techniques and in some cases (eg: northern Niger) a demographically imbalanced rural population. This has led to the loss of traditional farming techniques and in some cases (eg: northern Niger) a demographically imbalanced rural population.

Dependence on external support Where the effects of land degradation and drought have been the most acute, people have come to rely on food and other aid sent from other countries, eg: the band aid campaign of Where the effects of land degradation and drought have been the most acute, people have come to rely on food and other aid sent from other countries, eg: the band aid campaign of This can lead to over dependency on external help. This can lead to over dependency on external help.

Access to education and healthcare In many Saheian countries such as Burkina Faso, education and health care must be paid for and therefore the loss of income brought about by the failure of crops and herds may mean that individuals have their schooling interrupted and individuals go untreated when ill. In many Saheian countries such as Burkina Faso, education and health care must be paid for and therefore the loss of income brought about by the failure of crops and herds may mean that individuals have their schooling interrupted and individuals go untreated when ill.

Solutions to RLD

Solution 1 : Irrigation There have been several expensive irrigation schemes where rivers have been dammed and reservoirs formed. There have been several expensive irrigation schemes where rivers have been dammed and reservoirs formed. The water from the reservoirs is then taken by canals to irrigate large areas of farmland. The water from the reservoirs is then taken by canals to irrigate large areas of farmland.

The Gezira Scheme In Sudan the Gezira scheme allows one million hectares of land to be irrigated using water from the White Nile and Blue Nile. In Sudan the Gezira scheme allows one million hectares of land to be irrigated using water from the White Nile and Blue Nile.

The Gezira Scheme

Advantages Crops grow even though there is little rain Farmers can have two harvests a year Farmer income has increased considerably Cotton is grown for export Wheat is grown for food people are now employed there.

The Gezira Scheme Disadvantages Very expensive The reservoir flooded land which had previously been used by local farmers Only helped people in one small area of the country

Solution 2 - Terraces There are over kilometres of terraces in Ethiopia. There are over kilometres of terraces in Ethiopia. They help trap water, stopping it from washing the soil away. They help trap water, stopping it from washing the soil away.

Solution 3 – Afforestation Planting new trees helps to bind the soil, and also provides shade, windbreaks, nutrients and fuel for families. Planting new trees helps to bind the soil, and also provides shade, windbreaks, nutrients and fuel for families. Depending on the species planted the trees may also provide nuts and fruit for humans and animals. Depending on the species planted the trees may also provide nuts and fruit for humans and animals. Tree planting needs to be sustainable if it is to be successful in the Sahel. Tree planting needs to be sustainable if it is to be successful in the Sahel.

Solution 4 – Stone lines In Burkina Faso and other Sahel countries local people have built lines of stones along contours on their sloping farmland. In Burkina Faso and other Sahel countries local people have built lines of stones along contours on their sloping farmland. These stone lines trap run-off after heavy rain so that the soil is not washed away. These stone lines trap run-off after heavy rain so that the soil is not washed away. Crops also grow much better in the deeper soil behind the stones. Crops also grow much better in the deeper soil behind the stones. This method requires a lot of labour but is cheap and simple to work. This method requires a lot of labour but is cheap and simple to work.

Organisations such as Oxfam and Tear Fund, have used this method very effectively. In some cases crop yield has increased by as much as 50%. Organisations such as Oxfam and Tear Fund, have used this method very effectively. In some cases crop yield has increased by as much as 50%.

Other methods (1) Managed grazing areas Managed grazing areas Reduced herd sizes Reduced herd sizes

Other methods (2) Education Education Fuel efficient stoves Fuel efficient stoves