Professor Veronica Emilia Nuzzolo © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Introductory Psychology Concepts CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-2 Adolescence: The Period of Physical and Intellectual Change The onset of adolescence is marked by the physical changes of puberty, a stage of development lasting from 13 to 18 years of age. Involves rapid physical growth, and a heightening of sexual and romantic interest in others. Peers are often more important than parents in terms of attachment and influence. The adolescent is capable of reasoning in abstractions for the first time. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-3 Adolescence: The Period of Physical and Intellectual Change Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence The adolescent growth spurt can be seen by the rapid increase in height that occurs in males and females at the beginning of puberty. Source: Data from J.M. Tanner, R.H. Whitehouse, and M. Takaishi, “Standards from Birth to Maturity for Height, Weight, Height Velocity and Weight Velocity” in Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 41, , Height gain in centimeters per year Age in years

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-4 Puberty: Physical Change (Female) As women enter puberty the ovaries begin to produce estrogen and progesterone, the two female sex hormones. Unlike men, female hormones are not produced all the time, but rather in a cyclical cycle. The sex hormones are at the highest level when a women's body releases an egg from the ovaries, also known as ovulation. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-5 Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence Puberty: Physical Change (Male) At puberty, the male testes begin to secrete male sex hormones know as androgens. This produces the first sex characteristic of an increased sex drive, and secondary characteristics that include growth of body hair and a deepening of the voice.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-6 Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence Lawrence Kohlberg ( ) Kohlberg developed his Theory of Moral Development by presenting boys with moral dilemmas and asking them to evaluate the situation and people involved.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-7 Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development 1)Premoral Level: Children do not understand morality as a normal adult, and instead make moral judgments based on obtaining rewards or avoiding punishments. 2) Conventional Level: Children begin to make moral decisions based on what they think others will think of them, especially their parents’ ideas of societal rules. 3) Principled Level: Actions are judged on the basis of ethical principles rather than personal consequences. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-8 Erikson’s Stage Theory of Personality Development Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence Erik Erikson ( ) Erikson viewed the developmental changes occurring throughout life as a series of eight stages of psychosocial development. According to Erikson’s theory: The outcome of turning points or “crises” will partly determine the course of future personality development. Each stage represents a pairing of the most positive and negative aspects of the crisis of that period.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9-9 Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adolescence Development Accomplishments or Failures Age 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-5 years 5-11 years years years years 65 years on Stage/Crisis Basic trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Integrity vs. despair Acquires sense of own identity; or is confused about role in life

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Adulthood: Maturity For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. From about 18 to 25 years of age: Strength is greatest Reflexes are quickest Chances of dying from disease are minimal During middle adulthood people gradually become aware of changes in their bodies: Weight gain is common Sense organs become less sensitive Reactions to stimuli are slower Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood Development Accomplishments or Failures Age 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-5 years 5-11 years years years years 65 years on Stage/Crisis Basic trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Integrity vs. despair Develops couple relationship and joint identity w/partner; or becomes isolated from meaningful relationships

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood Development Accomplishments or Failures Age 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-5 years 5-11 years years years years 65 years on Stage/Crisis Basic trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Integrity vs. despair Develops a concern w/helping others, leaving children and ideas to future generations; or becomes self-centered and stagnant.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development: Adulthood Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood Development Accomplishments or Failures Age 0-1 year 1-3 years 3-5 years 5-11 years years years years 65 years on Stage/Crisis Basic trust vs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. inferiority Identity vs. role confusion Intimacy vs. isolation Generativity vs. stagnation Integrity vs. despair Reaps benefits of earlier stages and understands and accepts meaning of a temporary life; or despairs over ever being able to find meaning in life

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Characteristics of Aging: Changes in the 20s, 30s, and 40s. 20’s: Humans reach their physical, sexual, and perceptual peak with maximum muscle strength, vision, hearing and reaction time. 30’s: Many physical capacities start to decline, however the changes are hardly noticeable until later years. 40’s and on: Muscles become weaker and less flexible, metabolism rates slow down, vision declines, as does fertility. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Characteristics of Aging: Cognitive Change Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood Mean performance Age in years Age-related changes in intellectual skills vary according to the specific cognitive ability in question. Source: Schaie, Inductive reasoning Spatial orientation Number skills Verbal meaning Word fluency

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Health Problems in Adulthood: Physical Decline According to genetic preprogramming theories of aging: Human cells may have a built-in time limit to their reproduction. After a certain time, cells stop dividing or become harmful to the body. In contrast, “wear and tear” theories suggest: Mechanical functions of the body simply work less efficiently as people age. Waste by products of energy production eventually accumulate ; mistakes are made when cells divide. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Adulthood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Physical Development A child’s physical growth provides the most obvious sign of development. During the first year of life, children typically triple their birth weight, height increases by approximately 50%. Rapid growth slows as the child grows older; the relationship of the size of various body parts to one another changes dramatically with age. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Physical Development Physical and motor development follows several biological principles: Cephalocaudal principle: Reflects the tendency for development to proceed in a head-to-foot direction. (The head of an infant is disproportionately large because physical growth concentrates first on the head.) Proximodistal principle: Development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts. (Thus a fetus’s arms develop before the hands and fingers.) Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget ( ) spent over 50 years exploring how a child’s thought processes develops. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development StageAge (Years)Major Characteristics Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Birth to 2 2 to 7 7 to on Infant understands world through sensory and motor experiences Achieves object permanence Exhibits emergence of symbolic thought Child uses symbolic thinking in the form of words and images to represent objects and experiences Symbolic thinking enables child to engage in pretend play Thinking displays egocentrism, irreversibility, and centration Child can think logically about concrete events Grasps concepts of conservation and serial ordering Adolescent can think more logically, abstractly, and flexibly Can form hypotheses and systematically test them

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theory Information processing: The way in which people take in, use, and store information. To many developmental psychologists, changes in information processing account for cognitive development. (Sielgler, 1998; Lacerda, von Hofsten & Heimann, 2001; Cashon & Cohen, 2004.) According to this approach, quantitative changes occur in children’s ability to organize and manipulate information. Children may become increasingly adept at information processing, similar to a computer program becoming more sophisticated as a programmer modifies it on the basis of experience. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s Theory According to Russian developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, the culture in which we are raised significantly affects our cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems. Children’s cognitive abilities increase when they encounter information that falls within their zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD: The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own. When children receive information that falls within the ZPD, they can increase understanding or master a new task. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Stages of Language Development As the children’s cognitive development grows, so does their memory and verbal skills which greatly contribute to language development. By age 4 children start to use basic prepositions, adjectives and adverbs, and simple time concepts like today, tomorrow, and yesterday. This development continues up through, and beyond age 8 where they begin to talk and relate in terms of “adult” language skills. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Erickson’s First Four Stages 0-1 year, Basic trust vs. Mistrust: Child learns to feel comfortable and trust parents care; or develops a deep distrust of the world that is perceived to be unsafe. 1-3 years, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Learns sense of competence by learning to feed self, use toilet, play alone; or feels ashamed and doubts own abilities. 3-5 years, Initiative vs. Guilt: Gains ability to use own initiative in planning and carrying out plans; or cannot live within parents’ limits, develops a sense of guilt over misbehavior years, Industry vs. Inferiority: Learns to meet the demands imposed by school and home responsibilities; or comes to believe that he or she is inferior to others. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Gender Roles Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ in important respects according to gender. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Childhood The placement of toys in toy stores according to gender was commonplace until protests forced a nationwide chain to discontinue the practice. Boy’s World: action figures, sports collectibles, Tonka trucks Girl’s World: Barbie, baby dolls, play kitchens, jewelry, cosmetics

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Infancy: The Beginning of Human Life Because infants cannot describe their experiences, psychologists must find clever ways to take advantage of responses that infants can make, such as sucking and moving their eyes, to draw inferences about their capabilities and preferences. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy Can the fetus learn? Twice a day, during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy, mothers in one study read aloud the same passage from Dr.Seuss’s The Cat in the Hat. Two or 3 days after birth, infants were able to turn on a recording of their mother reading either the Cat in the Hat, or an unfamiliar rhyme by sucking on a sensor-equipped nipple at different rates. Compared with infants in a control condition, these newborns more often altered their sucking rate in whichever direction (faster or slower) selected the familiar rhyme.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Physical Development: Reflexes, Movement Although at birth an infant can make only jerky, limited voluntary movements, during the first year of life the ability to move independently grows enormously. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy 3.3 months: grasping rattle 5.9 months: sitting without support 7.2 months: standing while holding on 8.2 months: grasping with thumb and finger 11.5 months: standing alone well 12.3 months: walking well 14.8 months: building tower of two cubes 16.6 months: walking up steps 23.8 months: jumping in place 3.2 months: rolling over

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Physical Development: Vision A infant’s vision is initially limited to following objects with their eyes without being able to see details, but by the end of their first year they can see clearly. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy Seeing through an infant’s eyes. These three images approximate the visual acuity of an infant at 1 month, 3 months, and 12 months of age. (a)(b)(C)

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Physical Development: Senses Newborns’ facial responses tell us that they have a reasonably well-developed sense of taste. Newborns respond to touch and distinguish different odors. Hearing is fairly well-developed, newborns prefer human voices to other sounds and can distinguish their mother’s voice from that of a female stranger. (DeRegnier et al., 2002) Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1926, 1977) spent over 50 years exploring how a child’s thought processes develop. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development StageAge (Years)Major Characteristics Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Birth to 2 2 to 7 7 to on Infant understands world through sensory and motor experiences Achieves object permanence Exhibits emergence of symbolic thought Child uses symbolic thinking in the form of words and images to represent objects and experiences Symbolic thinking enables child to engage in pretend play Thinking displays egocentrism, irreversibility, and centration Child can think logically about concrete events Grasps concepts of conservation and serial ordering Adolescent can think more logically, abstractly, and flexibly Can form hypotheses and systematically test them

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages First stage: Sensorimotor, 0-2 years Cognitive: Motor Skills: Reflexive and Voluntary, enables infants to explore the new world around them. Object Permanence: Ability to form cognitive representation that objects exist even when they are out of sight. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Stages First stage: Sensorimotor, 0-2 years Emotional and Social: Neonates: Only capable of surprise, pleasure, and distress. Infancy: Introduces further emotions of anger, shyness, and fear. At 9 months: An infant will become anxious when separated from their caregiver. By 2 years: Infants can display emotions of guilt or being ashamed. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s Theory According to Russian developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, the culture in which we are raised significantly affects our cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems. Children’s cognitive abilities increase when they encounter information that falls within their zone of proximal development (ZPD).

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s Theory ZPD is the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own. When children receive information that falls within the ZPD, they can increase understanding or master a new task. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy Although the performances of the two children initially working at a task without aid are similar, the second child benefits more from aid and thus has a larger zone of proximal development. Child AChild B UnaidedAidedUnaidedAided ZPD Performance

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Stages of Language Development Infants learn language early on through reinforcement and imitation from their parents or care givers. By the end of two years, infants are displaying Telegraphic Speech (vocabulary approximately 300), but sentence structure is limited; “Milk all gone”, or “Daddy silly”. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Infancy

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Death and Dying Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) brought the subject of death into the open with her observation that those facing impending death tend to move through five broad stages: 1.Denial: The initial stage: “It can’t be happening.” 2.Anger: “Why ME? It’s not fair!” (either referring to God, oneself, or anybody perceived, rightly or wrongly, as “responsible”) 3.Bargaining: “Just let me live to see my child(ren) graduate.” 4.Depression: “I’m so sad, why bother with anything?” 5.Acceptance: “It’s going to be OK.” Introductory Psychology Concepts: Death and Dying

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Theories of Aging There is no single way to age successfully. Cellular Clock Theory: All humans have cells, the “clock” is the number of regenerations and divisions cells can undergo before cell growth slows and eventually stops. Wear and Tear Theory: Effects of aging are caused by damage done to cells and body systems over time essentially being “worn out" due to use. Once they wear out, they can no longer function correctly. Free-radical Theory: Organisms age because cells accumulate free radical damage with the passage of time. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Death and Dying

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Nature vs. Nurture Raising the issue of: Environmental causes of behavior (the influence of parents, siblings, friends, schooling, nutrition and other experiences) vs. Hereditary causes of behavior (those based on the genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development throughout life). Introductory Psychology Concepts: Nature vs. Nurture

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Nature vs. Nurture Psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes. The question has evolved into how and to what degree do environment and heredity both produce their results? Introductory Psychology Concepts: Nature vs. Nurture

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Genetics: Nature Developmental psychologists agree that genetic factors not only provide the potential for particular behaviors or traits to emerge, but also place limitations on the emergence of such behavior or traits. Heredity defines people’s general level of intelligence, setting an upper limit that people cannot exceed. Heredity also places limits on physical abilities. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Nature vs. Nurture

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Environment: Nurture Developmental psychologists also agree that in most instances environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people to reach the potential capabilities that their background makes possible. If Albert Einstein had received no intellectual stimulation as a child and had not been sent to school, it is unlikely that he would have reached his genetic potential. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Nature vs. Nurture

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Behavioral Genetics While a few psychologists believe that development is only nature or only nurture, most subscribe to the more realistic view that it is an interaction of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) that brings about our development. Introductory Psychology Concepts: Nature vs. Nurture