Introduction and Research Methods

What is Psychology?  Definition- scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior- any action other people can observe or measure Behavior- any action other people can observe or measure Mental processes- cognitive activities- dreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memories Mental processes- cognitive activities- dreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memories Researchers use psychological constructs- theoretical concepts that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured Researchers use psychological constructs- theoretical concepts that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured

Goals of Psychology  Psychologists want to observe and describe behaviors and mental processes to better understand them Try to explain, predict, and control behavior Try to explain, predict, and control behavior

Psychology as a Science  Psychology is a social science with a foundation in natural science Social sciences include- history, anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology Social sciences include- history, anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology Deals with the structure of human society and the nature and interactions of individuals who make up society Deals with the structure of human society and the nature and interactions of individuals who make up society Focus on individuals and their behavior and mental processes Focus on individuals and their behavior and mental processes

Psy. as a Science cont’d Natural science- biology, chemistry, and physics- nature of the physical world Natural science- biology, chemistry, and physics- nature of the physical world Some parts of psychology focus on the functioning of the brain Some parts of psychology focus on the functioning of the brain Use the scientific method when conducting research Use the scientific method when conducting research form a theory- a statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and happen the way they doform a theory- a statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and happen the way they do Develop principles- a rule or law about behavior, mental, and biological processesDevelop principles- a rule or law about behavior, mental, and biological processes

Fields of Psychology  Developmental- processes and changes involved in mental and physical growth in humans from the prenatal period to old age  Physiological- extent to which behavior is caused by physical conditions in the body and focuses on the brain, nervous system, and bodily functions  Experimental- basic processes- learning, memory, sensation, perception, cognition, motivation, and emotions

Fields of Psy. Cont’d  Personality- difference’s among people’s traits  Clinical- diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders  Counseling- “normal” problems of adjustment  Social- investigate the influence of people on one another

Fields of Psy. Cont’d  Industrial- study the effects of automation on humans  Organizational- problems of training personnel, improving working conditions  Educational- processes of learning, remembering, thinking, train teachers and curriculum design  School- work with students

Schools of Psychology  Structuralism- stresses the basic units of experiences and the combinations in which they occur Developed by Wilhelm Wundt- said psychology should be studies objectively and scientifically Developed by Wilhelm Wundt- said psychology should be studies objectively and scientifically Concern- uncovering the natural laws of the human mind Concern- uncovering the natural laws of the human mind Edward Bradford Titchener- student of Wundt Edward Bradford Titchener- student of Wundt Leader of American Psychology at Cornell UniversityLeader of American Psychology at Cornell University Said psychology is the study of experiences- broken into 3 elements- physical sensations, affections or feelings, and imagesSaid psychology is the study of experiences- broken into 3 elements- physical sensations, affections or feelings, and images

Schools cont’d  Functionalism- mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environment Developed by William James Developed by William James Disagreed with Wundt and TitchenerDisagreed with Wundt and Titchener Said perception cannot be separated from sensationsSaid perception cannot be separated from sensations

Schools Cont’d  Behaviorism- study of observable and measurable behavior John B. Watson- said psychology must be studied in a scientific way John B. Watson- said psychology must be studied in a scientific way Believed in conditioning- the acquiring of fairly specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuliBelieved in conditioning- the acquiring of fairly specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli BF Skinner had the same ideas as Watson but added reinforcement- anything that follows a response and makes that response more likely to recurBF Skinner had the same ideas as Watson but added reinforcement- anything that follows a response and makes that response more likely to recur

Schools Cont’d  Gestalt- studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns Leaders- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka Leaders- Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka All believed in perceptionAll believed in perception

Schools Cont’d  Psychoanalytic- behavior is governed by hidden motives and unconscious desires Leader- Sigmund Freud Leader- Sigmund Freud Believed people go through stages during first years of life and must solve conflicts in stages to avoid psychological problems later in lifeBelieved people go through stages during first years of life and must solve conflicts in stages to avoid psychological problems later in life Unconscious desires are sexualUnconscious desires are sexual

Schools Cont’d  Existential- concerned with meaninglessness and alienation in modern life, leads to apathy, fear, and other psychological problems Try to help people find identity and take responsibility for actions Try to help people find identity and take responsibility for actions

Schools Cont’d  Humanistic- possibilities of nonverbal experience, unity of the mind, altered sense of consciousness, and letting go

Schools Cont’d  Cognitive- interested in the way people perceive, interpret, store, and retrieve information Mental processes Mental processes More to behavior than responses to stimuli More to behavior than responses to stimuli

Perspectives  Biological- the influence of biology on our behavior  Evolutionary- the evolution of behavior and mental processes  Cognitive- role that thoughts play in determining behavior  Humanistic- stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choices

Perspectives  Psychoanalytic- stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior  Learning- emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior  Sociocultural- studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes

Research Methods  Naturalistic Observation- study an animal or person in their natural setting and not in a lab Easy to do in school or factory Easy to do in school or factory Disadvantages Disadvantages Observer bias- can have a distorted view of what has been observedObserver bias- can have a distorted view of what has been observed Notes taken may or may not be relevant to what is being observedNotes taken may or may not be relevant to what is being observed Depends on particular time, place, and peopleDepends on particular time, place, and people

Research Cont’d Advantages Advantages Gives psychology new ideas and suggestions for researchGives psychology new ideas and suggestions for research

Research Cont’d  Case Studies Research observes real life behavior of one person or a very few at a time Research observes real life behavior of one person or a very few at a time Disadvantage- observer biasDisadvantage- observer bias

Research Cont’d  Surveys Questionnaires or interviews administered to a subject or a group of people Questionnaires or interviews administered to a subject or a group of people

Research Cont’d  Correlational Research Technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables Technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables Does not permit experimenters to draw conclusions about cause and effect, to explain the relationship between one set of variables to another Does not permit experimenters to draw conclusions about cause and effect, to explain the relationship between one set of variables to another

Research Cont’d  Experimental Method 5 parts 5 parts Subjects- individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experimentSubjects- individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experiment Independent variable- the part of the experiment which is changedIndependent variable- the part of the experiment which is changed Dependent variable- the part of the experiment that does not changeDependent variable- the part of the experiment that does not change Experimental group- the group subjected to the change in the independent variableExperimental group- the group subjected to the change in the independent variable Control group- the group not subjected to the change in the experimentControl group- the group not subjected to the change in the experiment

Research Cont’d Can have experimental bias- expectations by the experimenter that influence the results of the experiment or its interpretations Can have experimental bias- expectations by the experimenter that influence the results of the experiment or its interpretations

Research Cont’d  Types of experimental methods Single blind- study participants do not know if they are receiving treatment Single blind- study participants do not know if they are receiving treatment Double blind- participants and the experimenter do not know who is receiving treatment Double blind- participants and the experimenter do not know who is receiving treatment Can use the placebo effect- a substance or treatment which has no effect Can use the placebo effect- a substance or treatment which has no effect The participant believes the substance is workingThe participant believes the substance is working

Research Cont’d  Multi-Method- use more than one method, mostly used by women  When doing research, must use samples Sample- taken from a larger population Sample- taken from a larger population Random sample- everyone has an equal chance of being selected Random sample- everyone has an equal chance of being selected Representative- must closely represent the characteristics of the larger population Representative- must closely represent the characteristics of the larger population Biased- only select those the experimenter wants Biased- only select those the experimenter wants Target population- whole group you want to describe or study Target population- whole group you want to describe or study Stratified sample- subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample Stratified sample- subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample

Ethics  Standards for proper and responsible behavior Followed to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, and maintain scientific integrity Followed to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, and maintain scientific integrity Established by the APA- American Psychological Association Established by the APA- American Psychological Association

Ethics Research with people Research with people Have two primary focusHave two primary focus Confidentiality Confidentiality Informed consent Informed consent

Ethics Confidentiality Confidentiality Records are privateRecords are private Can only reveal private information when the person states they are going to harm themselves or someone elseCan only reveal private information when the person states they are going to harm themselves or someone else

Ethics Informed Consent Informed Consent Means that people agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been granted the choice of whether or not to participateMeans that people agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been granted the choice of whether or not to participate

Ethics Deception Deception In some experiments, a person must be deceivedIn some experiments, a person must be deceived Deception can only be used in the following situations:Deception can only be used in the following situations: Experimenter believes that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm Experimenter believes that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm Experimenter believed that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research Experimenter believed that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research Participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred Participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred

Ethics  Research with animals Can conduct research on animals but must follow rules and standards Can conduct research on animals but must follow rules and standards No alternativeNo alternative Benefits outweigh the harmBenefits outweigh the harm