Theories of Emotion & Motivation

Emotion zEmotion ya response of the whole organism xphysiological arousal xexpressive behaviors xconscious experience

Theories of Emotion zDoes your heart pound because you are afraid... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?

James-Lange Theory of Emotion zExperience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli Fear (emotion) Pounding heart (arousal) Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus)

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion zEmotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: yphysiological responses ysubjective experience of emotion Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion)

Schachter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion zTo experience emotion one must: ybe physically aroused ycognitively label the arousal Cognitive label “I’m afraid” Fear (emotion) Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal)

Cognition and Emotion zThe brain’s shortcut for emotions

Two Routes to Emotion Appraisal Event Emotional response Physiological activation Expressive behavior Subjective experience

Two Dimensions of Emotion Positive valence Negative valence High arousal Low arousal pleasant relaxation joy sadness fear anger

Emotional Arousal Autonomic nervous system controls physiological arousal Sympathetic division (arousing) Pupils dilate Decreases Perspires Increases Accelerates Inhibits Secrete stress hormones Parasympathetic division (calming) Pupils contract Increases Dries Decreases Slows Activates Decreases secretion of stress hormones EYES SALIVATION SKIN RESPIRATION HEART DIGESTION ADRENAL GLANDS

Arousal and Performance zPerformance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well- learned tasks Performance level LowArousalHigh Difficult tasksEasy tasks

Emotion- Lie Detectors zPolygraph ymachine commonly used in attempts to detect lies ymeasures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion xperspiration xheart rate xblood pressure xbreathing changes

Emotion- A Polygraph Examination

Emotion- Lie Detectors zControl Question yUp to age 18, did you ever physically harm anyone? zRelevant Question yDid the deceased threaten to harm you in any way? zRelevant > Control --> Lie

Emotion- Lie Detectors Control question Relevant question Control question Relevant question (a)(b) Respiration Perspiration Heart rate

Emotion- Lie Detectors z50 Innocents z50 Thieves y1/3 of innocent declared guilty y1/4 of guilty declared innocent (from Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984) Percentage Innocent people Guilty people Judged innocent by polygraph Judged guilty by polygraph

Emotion- Lie Detectors zIs 70% accuracy good? yAssume 5% of 1000 employees actually guilty xtest all employees x285 will be wrongly accused zWhat about 95% accuracy? yAssume 1 in 1000 employees actually guilty xtest all employees (including 999 innocents) x50 wrongly declared guilty x1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (2%)

Expressing Emotion zGender and expressiveness Men Women Sad Happy Scary Film Type Number of expressions

Expressing Emotion Smiles can show different emotions: A) Mask anger B) Overly polite C) Soften criticism D) Reluctant compliance

Expressing Emotion zCulturally universal expressions

Experiencing Emotion zThe Amygdala- a neural key to fear learning

Experiencing Emotion zCatharsis yemotional release ycatharsis hypothesis x“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges zFeel-good, do-good phenomenon ypeople’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

Experiencing Emotion zSubjective Well-Being yself-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life yused along with measures of objective well-being xphysical and economic indicators to evaluate people’s quality of life

Experiencing Emotion zAre today’s collegians materialistic? Percentage rating goal as very important or essential ‘68 ‘70 ‘72 ‘74 ‘76 ‘78 ‘80 ‘82 ‘84 ‘86 ‘88 ‘90 ‘92 ‘94 ‘96 Year Developing a meaningful life philosophy Being very well-off financially

Experiencing Emotion zDoes money buy happiness? Year 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Average per-person after-tax income in 1995 dollars Percentage describing themselves as very happy $20,000 $19,000 $18,000 $17,000 $16,000 $15,000 $14,000 $13,000 $12,000 $11,000 $10,000 $9,000 $8,000 $7,000 $6,000 $5,000 $4, Percentage very happy Personal income

Experiencing Emotion zValues and life satisfaction Money Love Life satisfaction Importance scores

Experiencing Emotion zAdaptation-Level Phenomenon ytendency to form judgments relative to a “neutral” level xbrightness of lights xvolume of sound xlevel of income ydefined by our prior experience zRelative Deprivation yperception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion Strong Neutral Strong First experience (a) Strong Neutral Strong After repeated experiences (b)

Happiness is... Researchers Have Found That Happy People Tend to Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries) Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable Have close friendships or a satisfying marriage Have work and leisure that engage their skills Have a meaningful religious faith Sleep well and exercise However, Happiness Seems Not Much Related to Other Factors, Such as Age Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful) Education levels Parenthood (having children or not) Physical attractiveness

Motivation zMotivation ya need or desire that energizes and directs behavior zInstinct ycomplex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Motivation zDrive-Reduction Theory ythe idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking) Need (e.g., for food, water) Drive (hunger, thirst)

Motivation zHomeostasis ytendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state yregulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level zIncentive ya positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs zbegins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied zthen higher-level safety needs become active zthen psychological needs become active Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

Motivation-Hunger zStomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger Time in minutes Subject swallows balloon, which measures stomach contraction Subject presses key each time when hungry Stomach contractions Hunger pangs

Motivation-Hunger zGlucose ythe form of sugar that circulates in the blood yprovides the major source of energy for body tissues ywhen its level is low, we feel hunger

Motivation-Hunger zSet Point ythe point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set ywhen the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight zBasal Metabolic Rate ybody’s base rate of energy expenditure

Motivation-Hunger zThe hypothalamus controls eating and other body maintenance functions

Eating Disorders zAnorexia Nervosa ywhen a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly (>15%) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve yusually an adolescent female zBulimia Nervosa ydisorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise

Eating Disorders- Anorexia Nervosa zwhen a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight z95% of sufferers are female zmost are between the ages of z30% of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die

Women’s Body Images Thinnest Women’s ideal What women believed men preferred What men actually preferred Women’s current body image Fattest

Sexual Motivation zSex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values

Sexual Motivation zSexual Response Cycle zthe four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson zexcitement zplateau zorgasm zresolution zRefractory Period zresting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

The Sexual Response Cycle MalesFemales Orgasm Plateau Excitement Resolution with orgasm Resolution without orgasm

Sexual Motivation zEstrogen ya sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation Physiological readiness Imaginative stimuli External stimuli Sexual motivation

Sexual Disorders zProblems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning yIn Men xpremature ejaculation ejaculation before they or their partners wish ximpotence inability to have or maintain erection yIn Women xorgasmic disorder infrequent or absent orgasms

Sexual Motivation zSame drives, different attitudes Iceland Germany Great Canada Mexico United India Taiwan Singapore Britan States Country 100% Percent answering wrong “Do you think it is, or is not, wrong for a couple to have a baby if they are not married?”

Sexual Motivation zBirths to unwed parents United States Canada Japan Britain Year 40% Percentage of births to unwed mothers

Sexual Motivation zSexual Orientation yan enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own gender (homosexual orientation) or the other gender (heterosexual orientation)

Sexual Motivation zChanging attitudes Extramarital sex is “always wrong” Homosexual sex is “always wrong” Year 100% Source: National Opinion Research Center (University of Chicago) General Social Survey

Motivation zAchievement Motivation ya desire for significant accomplishment xfor mastery of things, people, or ideas xfor attaining a high standard yMcClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns

Motivation zIntrinsic Motivation ydesire to perform a behavior for its own sake or to be effective zExtrinsic Motivation ydesire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Rewards Affect Motivation Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’ Controlling reward Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’ Extrinsic motivation Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’ Informative reward Child: “I love doing well.’’ Intrinsic motivation

Motivation zIndustrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology ysub-field of psychology that studies and advises on workplace behavior zI/O Psychologists yhelp organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and design products and assess responses to them

Motivation zTask Leadership ygoal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals zSocial Leadership ygroup-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Motivation zTheory X yassumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money yshould be directed from above zTheory Y yassumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity