{ Motivation Refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a particular time.

Instinct Theory  Psychologists have proposed over 6,000 different instincts to explain every kind of human motivation.  Instinct- are innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior.  Fixed Action Pattern- an innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition.

Drive-Reduction Theory  Theory states that a need results in a drive, which is a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis.  Need- a biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival.  Drive- a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce that tension.  Homeostasis- tendency of the body to return to, and remain in, a more balanced state.

Incentive Theory  Incentives- environmental factors, such as external stimuli, reinforcers, or rewards, that motivate our behavior.  Grades, praise, money, degree etc.

Cognitive Theory  Motivation based on intrinsic rewards.  Intrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations.

 Level 5- Self-Actualization: Fulfillment of one’s unique potential.  Level 4- Esteem Needs: Achievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition.  Level 3- Love and Belonging Needs: Affiliation with others and acceptance by others.  Level 2- Safety Needs: Protection from harm.  Level 1- Physiological Needs: Food, water, sex, sleep. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Hunger  Optimal Weight- results from an almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats and how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs.  Overweight- 20% over optimal weight  Obesity- 30% or more over optimal weight.

Biological Hunger Factors  Come from physiological changes in blood chemistry and signals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which, in turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating.  If eating was regulated by these factors primarily… you would remain and optimal weight.

Psychosocial Hunger Factors  Comes from learned associations between food and other stimuli, such as snacking while watching TV; socioculture influences, such as pressures to be thin; and various personality problems, such as depression, dislike of body image, or low self-esteem.

Genetic Hunger Factors  Come from inherited instructions found in our genes.  These instructions determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight.

 Peripheral Cues- come from changes in blood chemistry or signals from digestive organs.  Central Cues- come from the activity of chemicals and neurotransmitters in different areas of the brain. Sources of Biological Hunger Factors

 Stomach- monitors the amount and kinds of nutrients our body needs to restore our depleted stores of fuel. In addition, after we eat a meal, the stomach’s walls are distended and their stretch receptors signal fullness and time to stop eating.  Liver- monitors nutrients, especially the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. When the level of glucose falls, the liver signals hunger; when it rises, the liver signals full.  Intestines- respond to the presence of food, especially fats, by secreting a hormone called CCK (cholecystokinin), which inhibits eating.  Fat Cells- secrete a hormone (leptin) that is monitored by the brain. In turn, the brain signals a person to eat or stop eating so that a certain level of body fat remains constant over a lifetime. Peripheral Cues

 Hypothalamus- area of brain that has many different groups of cells that are involved in a number of different behaviors having to do with motivation, such as thirst, sexual behavior, and regulation of hunger.  Lateral Hypothalamus- a group of cells that regulates hunger by creating feelings of being hungry.  Ventromedial Hypothalamus- a group of cells that regulates hunger by creating feelings of satiety (say-TIE-ah-tea), or fullness.  Galanin- a chemical produced by the brain, acts on the hypothalamus and stimulates eating fat. Norepinephrine, which is a neurotransmitter produced by the brain, acts on the hypothalamus and stimulates eating carbohydrates. Central Cues

Eating Disorders  Anorexia- eating disorder in which the desire to be thin drives a person to not eat; or partially starve themselves.  Bulimia- A person that participates in binge eating and then regurgitating the food so their body does not absorb the fat cells.

Sexual Behavior  Genetic Sex Factors  Biological Sex Factors  Psychological Sex Factors

Genetic Influences on Sexual Behavior  Sex Chromosome- In the sperm and the egg; contains 23 chromosomes, which in turn have genes that contain instructions for determining sex of child.

Biological Influences on Sexual Behavior  Sex Hormones- Testosterone for men and estrogen for women.  Male Hypothalamus- Triggers release of male sex hormones.  Female Hypothalamus- Triggers release of female sex hormones.

Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior  Gender Identity  Gender Roles  Sexual Orientation

Human Need to Belong  Aides survival  Humans want to belong  Act to increase social acceptance  Maintaining relationships  Avoid pain of ostracism  Fortifying health

Motivation and Work  Industrial Psychology: field that concentrates on optimizing human behavior in the workplace.  Personnel Psychology: subfield of I/O Psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, and development.

Flow  Flow: focused state with diminished awareness of time and self due to complete engagement of one’s skills.

 Social Needs- Acquired through learning and experience  Achievement Needs- desire to set challenging goals and persistence in pursuing those goals.  Fear of Failure- Avoid failure by choosing easy, non- challenging tasks.  Self-Handicapping- Doing things that contribute to failure then using those things as an excuse, knowingly or unknowingly.  Underachievers- are individuals who have a lot of potential, but fail to achieve. Achievement

Cognitive Influences  Intrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors without receiving any external rewards because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding in some way.  Extrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives and external rewards.