Writing Workshop Physiotherapy Year 2 Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre2 Workshop outline Getting started: Motivation and time management Key consideration: –The writing process –The rhetorical situation –Academic writing style Critical appraisal Structuring your paper Scientific style Strategies to develop writing: Peer review

Getting Started Writing and Keeping Going

Regional Writing Centre4 Anxieties and fears What do you worry about or struggle when faced with a writing task? How will you overcome these anxieties and fears?

Regional Writing Centre5 It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research project Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Get a writing buddy Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time

Regional Writing Centre6 Where am I? What writing have you done and what writing do you need to do in order to complete your paper for PY4034 on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing -- no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs.

Regional Writing Centre7 Getting started Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? –“I don’t feel ready to write.” –Writers’ block Getting unstuck –Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) –Set writing goals –Write regularly –Integrate writing into your thinking –Break it down into a manageable process

Assessment Essay (case-based) Case... Give a reasoned account of the short and long term goals for this person, relating their clinical features to probable patho-physiological changes. Discuss the evidence for two different physiotherapeutic interventions which would be appropriate as part of the overall physiotherapy management programme for this patient. Regional Writing Centre8

Key Considerations

Regional Writing Centre10 Key stages in the process Prewriting Drafting Revision Editing and Proofreading

Prewriting Planning –Evaluating the rhetorical situation, or context, into which you write –Choosing and focusing your topic –Establishing an organising principle Gathering information –Entering the discourse on your topic –Taking notes as a strategy to avoid charges of plagiarism –Evaluating sources

Regional Writing Centre12 Planning: Assessing the rhetorical situation Occasion Topic Audience Purpose Writer

Drafting Try to visualise your report. Work toward that vision. Begin to structure it—establish your section headings; give them titles. These do not have to be permanent. Examine the logical order of ideas reflected in those titles. Do not get hung up on details; elements of the draft are subject to change in the revision stage. Start to write the sections that you are ready to write.

Drafting Continue to reassess your rhetorical situation. Does what you have written so far contribute to the achievement of your purpose? Experiment with organisation and methods of development. Don’t get bogged-down in details; focus on the big issues: organisation and logical flow.

Revision Is your paper logically organised? Does each section contribute to your reader’s understanding of your topic? Does your paper service your purpose, aims, and objectives? Outline each section. How does each paragraph contribute to our understanding of the topic of that section? Take a close look at paragraphs: Does each paragraph have a central idea? Does it have unity? Is it coherent and well developed?paragraphs

Editing and proofreading Once the report is cogent, it must be made to be coherent. Work methodically, checking one feature at a time. Do not exclude formatting issues. Editing and proofreading is more than just grammar and punctuation; it is also about voice, rhythm, tone, style and clarity.

Regional Writing Centre17 Stylistic differences that mark academic writing Complexity Formality Objectivity Accuracy Precision Explicitness Hedging Responsibility (Gillet 2008)

Regional Writing Centre18 Persuasion and truth in academic writing Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.

Regional Writing Centre19 Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Generate a list of the important criteria which will make your writing more effective Ask yourself the following questions: –How is the paper structured? –How is the contribution articulated? –What level of context is provided? –What level of detail is used? –How long are the different sections?

Regional Writing Centre20 Cracking the codes What organisational features/patterns are in evidence? How are arguments and counterarguments presented and structured? What types of evidence are important? What stylistic features are prominent? Is the text cohesive? How does the author achieve such cohesion? What kind(s) of persuasive devises does the author employ? Voice?

Critical Appraisal

Regional Writing Centre22 Reporting the work of others Making use of the ideas of other people is one of the most important aspects of academic writing because it shows awareness of other people’s work; it shows that you can use their ideas and findings; it shows you have read and understood the material you are reading; it shows where your contribution fits in; it supports the points you are making. (Gillet 2008)

Regional Writing Centre23 Reporting the work of others We report another author’s ideas by using paraphrase, summary, synthesis and quotation, and we use introductory phrases and reporting verbs to communicate our relationship to the ideas that we are reporting. Compare, for example: –Brown (1983: 231) claims that a far more effective approach is... –Brown (1983: 231) points out that a far more effective approach is... –A far more effective approach is... (Brown 1983: 231)

Regional Writing Centre24 Critical thinking McPeck (1981:8 cited in Borg 2008:13) defines critical thinking as –“the prosperity and skill to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism”. “Critical thinking: –is clear, precise, accurate, relevant, logical and consistent –integrates a controlled sense of scepticism or disbelief about claims, assertions and conclusions (i.e. not taking information and positions at face value –involves interrogating existing information for strengths, weaknesses and gaps –is deliberately and demonstrably free from bias and prejudice.” (Paul and Elder 2006 cited in Borg 2008:13)

Regional Writing Centre25 Good reasoning Key features of good reasoning “Reasoning: –has a purpose –is shaped by and expressed through concepts and ideas –is based on data, information and evidence –involves making inferences and interpretations based on the data and evidence in order to draw conclusions –is based on assumptions that are explicit and clear –is carried out from a particular point of view –has consequences and implications.” (Paul and Elder 2006 cited in Borg 2008:13)

Regional Writing Centre26 Critical thinking How can you bring a critical orientation to your work? What questions should you ask when reading and writing in order to develop critical and analytical thinking skills?

Structuring your paper

Regional Writing Centre28 Structure Preliminaries Main Text End Matter

Regional Writing Centre29 The main text Introduction Development Conclusion How the writing is structured will depend on the genre, i.e. essay, literature review, reflection. UEfAP: Academic Writing <GenresUEfAP: Academic Writing

Regional Writing Centre30 The main text: Essays Purpose: –Present a clear argument Structure –Introduction –Development of ideas –Conclusion

Regional Writing Centre31 The introduction In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the essay To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance.

Regional Writing Centre32 The introduction The introduction has two parts: General statements.  General statements attract a reader’s attention and give background information on the topic. A thesis statement  States the main topic.  Sometimes indicates sub-topics.  Will sometimes indicate how the essay is to be organised.

Regional Writing Centre33 In brief…. The introduction should be funnel shaped Begin with broad statements. Make these statements more and more specific as the writer narrows the scope of the topic and comes to the problem. Be sure that the question, hypothesis or claim is one that can be handled in a report of the length specified. This question, hypothesis or claim is your thesis statement.

Regional Writing Centre34 The conclusion How you conclude your paper, like everything else in writing, largely depends on your purpose. Generally, though, a conclusion ends by reminding the reader of the main points of the argument in support of your thesis. Otherwise, you may end with a reflection, a call to action, an impact question (indicating, perhaps, that you see scope for future research), a quote, or advice.

Regional Writing Centre35 Elements of a good conclusion A conclusion should: Remind the reader of the main points of your argument Bring ‘closure to the interpretation of the data’ (Leedy 2001:291) Be clear Be logical Be credible

Regional Writing Centre36 Elements of a good conclusion A summary of the investigation, the results and the analysis A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results An account of whether the research has answered the research question An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved

Regional Writing Centre37 Elements of a good conclusion A discussionion of the implications of the findings A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion A final, strong, positive statement

Regional Writing Centre38 Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure –Unity –Coherence

Regional Writing Centre39 Paragraph structure What is a paragraph? –Series of sentences –Coherent (introduction, middle, end) –Common theme Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea. Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas. The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments. The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next. Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions.

Regional Writing Centre40 Paragraph structure Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.

Regional Writing Centre41 Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by –Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, –Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and –Argumentation based on the evidence presented. –Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.

Regional Writing Centre42 Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or They can paraphrase the topic sentence.

Regional Writing Centre43 Paragraph structure: Unity Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999:18).

Regional Writing Centre44 Paragraph structure: Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because –your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order –your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals –your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent –you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue 2006:22)

Regional Writing Centre45 Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007:471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

Scientific Writing Style

Regional Writing Centre47 Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Sentences –Short v. long –Simple v. complex Vocabulary –Short vs long phrases –Ordinary vs grandiose –Familiar vs unfamiliar –Non-technical vs technical –Concrete vs abstract –Normal, comfortable idiomatic expression vs special, stiff scientific idioms –Direct incisive phrasing vs roundabout, verbose phrasing

Regional Writing Centre48 Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Verb Forms –Active vs passive –Personal vs impersonal –Informal vs formal

Regional Writing Centre49 Stylistic features common to scientific and technical writing Mechanics –Spelling –Capitalisation –Punctuation: Careful use vs casual, random use

Strategies to Develop Writing: Peer Review

Regional Writing Centre51 Dialogue about writing Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore 2006:102) Writers’ groups Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.

Regional Writing Centre52 Resources Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL Using English for Academic Purposes The Writer’s Garden cyberlyber.com/writermain.htmhttp://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm The OWL at Purdue The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill /wcweb/handouts/index.html /wcweb/handouts/index.html

Regional Writing Centre53 Works cited Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press. Elbow, P. and Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer: A Community of Writers Revisited. New York: McGraw-Hill. McPeck, J. (1981) Critical Thinking and Education, New York: St. Martin’s Press. Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education. Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2006) The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools, New York: The Foundation for Critical Thinking.