Chapter 2 How do we find out? The logic, art, and ethics of scientific discovery

Laws, Theories, and Hypotheses Laws: universal statements about the nature of things that allow prediction Theories: general statements about the relation among variables Hypotheses: a specific prediction about a specific event or events

The Science of Observation Method of induction: reasoning from specific instances to general principles Method of deduction: a general statement is used to derive specific predictions

Three Approaches to Hypothesis Testing Validation Falsification Qualification

The Art of Scientific Discovery Inductive techniques for developing ideas –Case studies –Paradoxical incidents –Analyzing the practitioner’s rule of thumb –Serendipity Deductive techniques for developing ideas –Reasoning by analogy –Applying a functional analysis –Hypothetico-deductive method –Accounting for conflicting results –Accounting for exceptions

The Ethics of Scientific Discovery Evolution of ethical guidelines Internal review boards and risk- benefit analysis Some ethical guidelines: –Informed consent –Freedom from coercion –Confidentiality –Debriefing

Key Terms from Chapter 2 Theories Laws Hypotheses Equifinality Method of induction Problem of induction Method of deduction Positive test bias Behavioral confirmation Validation Falsification Qualification Case studies Paradoxical incidents Rule of thumb Serendipity Reasoning by analogy Adaptive analysis

Key Terms from Chapter 2 Hypothetico- deductive method Accounting for conflicting results Accounting for exceptions Risk-benefit analysis Internal review board Informed consent Freedom from coercion Confidentiality Debriefing