Introduction to Learning Chapter 1

A Definition of Learning  Learning is: An experiential process Resulting in a relatively permanent change Not explained by temporary states, maturation, or innate response tendencies.

Three Limits on the Definition  The change that occurs during learning is a potential for behavior that depends on other conditions.  Learning is not always a permanent change. What can be learned can be unlearned.  Changes also occur for other reasons – maturation, motivation.

Roots of Behavior Theory  Functionalism – behavior promotes survival, study behavior to understand its adaptive function. Dewey – lower animals have reflexes, humans have a flexible mind James – people have instincts Brucke – internal biochemical forces motivate behavior in all species.

Criticisms of Functionalism  The variety of behavior across cultures is inconsistent with universal human instincts.  Infants seem to have few innate instincts (only fear, rage, love?).  Labeling everything an instinct doesn’t aid understanding much. Bernard cataloged instincts

Behaviorism  A search for the laws governing learning.  Emphasis on experience.  Avoidance of mentalistic concepts.  Based on Aristotle’s idea of the association of ideas. In order for two ideas to become associated, they must be paired together in time (temporally).

British Associationists  Locke – thinking consists of: Simple ideas – passive impressions received by the senses. Complex ideas – the combination (association) of simple ideas (a rose).  Hume – associations are based on: Resemblance (similarity) Contiguity in time or place Cause and effect

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box  BDujDOLre-8 BDujDOLre-8

Thorndike’s Laws  Also called S-R learning.  Law of effect – A chance act becomes a learned behavior when a connection is formed between a stimulus (S) and a response (R) that is rewarded.  Law of exercise – the S-R connection is strengthened by use and weakened with disuse.

Thorndike’s Laws (Cont.)  Law of readiness – motivation is needed to develop an association or display changed behavior.  Associative shifting – a learned behavior (response) can be shifted from one stimulus to another. Once a behavior is learned, the stimulus is gradually changed. Fish + “stand up”, then “stand up” alone.

Pavlov’s Studies

Pavlov’s Conditioned Reflex  Conditioning -- a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce one.  Learning occurs through pairing in time and place of one stimulus with another stimulus that produces a response.  This is a kind of associative shifting, but the response is involuntary.

Terminology of Conditioning  Unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) Produces a reflexive response without learning.  Unconditioned response (UR or UCR) The response that occurs, typically a reflex, involuntary and automatic.

More Terminology  Neutral stimulus A stimulus not capable of producing an unconditioned response.  Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to evoke a response.  Conditioned response (CR) The learned response, similar to the UCR, an involuntary reflex.

Two Examples  bOMMy1cmamE&feature=related bOMMy1cmamE&feature=related  F-S2g8CXUAk&feature=related F-S2g8CXUAk&feature=related

Prior to conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) UCS (food powder in mouth) UCR (salivation) Conditioning Neutral stimulus CS (tone) UCS (food powder) + CR (salivation) After conditioning CS (tone) CR (salivation)

Conditioning Processes  Stimulus generalization – stimuli like the CS become able to evoke the conditioned response.  Extinction – if the UCS and CS are not paired, the CS loses its ability to produce a conditioned response.  Spontaneous recovery – an extinguished CS briefly returns but quickly goes away again.

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

Little Albert

Watson & Raynor  Human fears can be acquired through Pavlovian conditioning. Rat paired with loud noise Stimulus generalized to other white objects (white rabbit, white fur coat)  Mary Cover Jones developed counterconditioning -- a technique for eliminating conditioned fears. Acquisition of fear-inhibiting response

Ethics of Learning Research  Animals and humans are now protected by oversight and ethical guidelines.  Pain or injury to animals must be weighed against and justified by the knowledge to be gained.  Electric shock typically is uncomfortable and upsetting but not physically harmful.

Modification of Instinctive Behavior Chapter 2

Instinctive Systems  Lorenz & Tinbergen – evolution occurs when a species incorporates environmental knowledge into its genetic structure. Greylag goose and egg-rolling.  Learning can sometimes modify instinctive behavior – even though the fixed action patterns are innate.

Energy Model  Action-specific energy builds up but is blocked (inhibited).  The energy motivates appetitive (approach) behavior.  Presence of a sign stimulus releases the energy by stimulating an innate releasing mechanism.  The behavior occurs as a fixed action pattern (or chain of actions).

Releasing Signs  Releasing signs can be complex: Grayling butterfly signs include darkness of female, distance from male, and pattern of movement.  Intensity of the sign influences the behavior but so does the amount of accumulated energy (time since the last response).

Hierarchical System  Specific behaviors are controlled by a central instinctive system.  Energy can accumulate at each level in the system. Hormones generate energy.  Release of energy at higher levels flows to lower levels.  The sign stimulus determines which behavior will occur.

Conflicting Motives  If two incompatible signs appear at the same time, energy flows to a third instinct system. Stickleback fish begins nest-building when caught in a fight-flight conflict.  This third behavior is called displacement.

Conditioning Affects Behavior  Conditioning experiences can change sensitivity to releasing signs. Only the consummatory response (eating, mating) at the end of a chain cannot be changed.  Conditioning fine tunes the response to the environment and enhances survival.

Criticisms of the Energy Model  Best viewed as a metaphor.  The brain does not literally accumulate energy in any centers and nothing flows.  Willows & Hoyle – alternating contractions in sea slug allow it to escape from a starfish. Brain areas producing this response do not correspond to energy model.

Acquired Changes in Response  Habituation – response to a repeated stimulus decreases with experience.  Sensitization – response to a repeated stimulus increases with experience.  Examples: Ingestional neophobia, fear of new food Startle response

Experimental Evidence  Rats drink little saccharin water at first but increase over time.  Loud tones (110 db) produce different responses depending on the background noise (60 vs 80 db). Habituation occurred at 60 db Sensitization occurred at 80 db A loud background is arousing, leading to greater reactivity, not less.

Conditions Producing Change  More intense (stronger) stimuli produce stronger sensitization, less likely to produce habituation.  Greater sensitization and habituation occur when the stimulus is repeated frequently.  Changes in the stimulus prevent habituation. Turkeys respond to shape changes.

Conditions (Cont.)  Sensitization can occur to many kinds of stimuli but habituation occurs only with innate responses.  Habituation and sensitization are transient (go away after seconds or minutes between stimuli). Except long-term habituation.  Dishabituation – response returns when a sensitizing stimulus occurs.

Opponent-Process Theory  An explanation for addictions.  All experiences produce an affective reaction (pleasant or unpleasant) – called the A state.  This reaction gives rise to its opposite – called the B state. B state is less intense and lasts longer.  Over time, the A state diminishes and the B state increases.

The Addiction Process  Tolerance – diminished A state.  Withdrawal – increased B state.  Addictive behavior is a coping response to the change in B state. People try to enhance A state to offset the unpleasantness of the B state. Without withdrawal symptoms there is no addictive behavior. Time prevents B state strengthening.

What Sustains Addiction?  The B state is a non-specific aversive feeling. Anything similarly aversive will motivate the addictive behavior, even if it has no relation to the substance. Daily life stress produces a B state that results in behavior to create an A state.  Parachute jumpers – create a B state in order to feel the A state.