A Guide to Constructing Argument in Written Forms

Persuasion vs. Argument  Persuasion and argument are often used interchangeably, but they are not necessarily the same.  Persuasion is a broad term, which includes many tactics designed to move people to a position, a belief, or a course of action  Argument is a specific kind of persuasion based on the principles of logic and reasoning

What is ARGUMENT?  EXPRESSING A POINT OF VIEW ON A SUBJECT AND SUPPORTING IT WITH EVIDENCE

The Nature of Argument  Most material you learn is or has been debated by someone, somewhere, at some time.  Even when the material you read or hear is presented as simple “fact,” it may actually be one person’s interpretation of a set of information.  Human knowledge grows out of such differences of opinion

EXAMPLE OF HOW ARGUMENT CAN CHANGE “FACT”  For nearly 2000 years, educated people in many Western cultures believed that bloodletting— deliberately causing a sick person to lose blood— was the most effective treatment for a variety of illnesses. The “fact” that bloodletting is beneficial to human health was not widely questioned until the 1800′s, and some physicians continued to recommend bloodletting as late as the 1920′s. We have come to accept a different set of “facts” now because some people began to doubt the effectiveness of bloodletting; these people argued against it and provided convincing evidence.

Why is learning to argue effectively important to you?  Because good arguments can influence people to your advantage  Because you must be able to recognize when effective argument is being used to influence you  Because most of the decisions you will have to make in your life will depend on the effectiveness of the argument—whether with your self or others  Because you will use techniques of effective argument in college or tech school, in the workplace, in your family, and within society at large

The Importance of Argument and Persuasion  In everyday life… Appealing a grade, asking for a raise, applying for a job, negotiating the price of a new car, arguing in traffic court  In academic life… Defending your ideas, engaging intellectual debate  On the job… Getting people to listen to your ideas, winning buy-in, getting your boss to notice, getting cooperation, moving people to action  In writing… Irrefutably making your point, writing to be read  In reading and listening… Critically evaluating other’s arguments, protecting yourself from unethical persuasive tactics, recognizing faulty reasoning when you see it.

What exactly is an Argument?  An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then proving it with the use of evidence, logical reasoning, examples, and research.

The Essential Ingredients of an Argument  An issue open to debate  Your position on the issue  Your reasons for that position  Evidence to support your reason Experience, expert opinion, research and statistics

What is a CLAIM?  Definition: A claim states your position on the issue you have chosen to write about.  It is stated in your THESIS STATEMENT and usually placed at the end of your introduction. 

A GOOD CLAIM IS…  Not overly vague. You must be clear about what you are going to argue and why.  Logical; it comes considering the evidence-what you agree with and what you don’t  Debatable Claims that are purely factual and claims that are only opinion fail this requirement.  Is not just a simple sentence. It usually will contain subordinating elements

Evidence and Data  Evidence which you cite is used to support your claim. Like a lawyer presenting evidence to a jury, you must support your claim with facts;  an unsupported claim is merely an assertion.  A CLAIM must have a WARRANT behind it, which connects your EVIDENCE AND DATA to your claim.

WARRANT HOW YOU USE AND CONNECT YOUR DATA AND EVIDENCE TO YOUR CLAIM IS CALLED THE WARRANT.  Definition: the warrant interprets the data and evidence, and then shows how it supports your claim.  The warrant, in other words, explains why the data or evidence proves the claim. (In trials, lawyers for opposing sides often agree on the data but hotly dispute the warrants.)

Example of a Warrant:  CLAIM: IT MUST HAVE RAINED LAST NIGHT. EVIDENCE: The streets are wet. EVIDENCE: The streets were dry when we went to bed last night. EVIDENCE: The skies were cloudy yesterday. EVIDENCE: There was not a flood and the town did not open a fire hydrant. EVIDENCE: There was no water leak in town. DATA: There was a ninety percent chance or rain for last night. DATA: We received 0 inches of rain yesterday.

A WARRANT MUST BE:  VALID-IT MUST BE ABLE TO BE PROVEN WITH EVIDENCE  LOGICAL-IT MUST MAKE SENSE  BE MEANINGFUL

The Thesis Statement/CLAIM …is the most important sentence in your paper …is a CLAIM THAT CONTAINS SOME HINT AT THE WARRANT …answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”...brings focus to the entire essay …lets the reader know the main idea of the paper …is not a factual statement or an announcement of purpose, but a claim that has to be proven throughout the paper.

Which THESIS STATEMENT/CLAIM is the best and why?  Parents, often too busy to watch television shows with their families, can monitor their children’s viewing habits with the aid of the V-chip.  To help parents monitor their children’s viewing habits, the V-chip should be a required feature for television sets sold in the U.S.  This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made television sets.

Offering a Counterargument  Addressing the opposition demonstrates your credibility as a writer  It shows that you have researched multiple sides of the argument and have come to an informed decision  Remember, keep a balanced tone when attempting to debunk the opposition

The Role of Your Audience  Understanding your audience is key to effective writing of all kinds, especially persuasive writing  An argument is an implicit dialogue or exchange with your audience, so in writing arguments, assume there is a reader that will not agree with you  Audience awareness is absolutely essential to successful persuasion and argument; therefore…  Know your audience What is their position on the issue? How strongly do they feel about it? Are they open-minded enough to consider other views? What will their objections be to your argument?

Using a Reasonable Tone  Shows you are fair-minded and therefore adds to your credibility  When you acknowledge the opposition with balanced language, it shows that your respect the opposing views  No matter how passionate you are about the issue, don’t resort to careless, harsh words; this would show more about your than the issue

Counter-arguing Effectively  Conceding to some of your opposition’s concerns can demonstrate respect for their opinions  Remain tactful yet firm using rude or deprecating language can cause your audience to reject your position without carefully considering your claims

RESEARCH STEP ONE: Document Your Source  Author  Title  Journal/ Magazine/Webpage  Place of publication  Publisher/Website  Copyright date/Date published  Date Accessed (if Web source)  Medium (Print, Web, Audio, Video, Interview, etc.)

Step Two: Read and Annotate the Text  One way to do this is to use three colors of highlighters to do the following, like… BLUE=EVIDENCE-SAY--FACTUAL INFORMATION(cannot be disputed) YELLOW=MEAN-author or speaker’s CLAIMS GREEN=MATTER—highlight author or speaker’s WARRANTS (Why the evidence supports claims or why the claims matter or what they mean to the general argument)

ANOTHER Way to Analyze/Annotate Text  Use a PMI CHART: PLUSMINUSINFORMATION

How to Analyze an Argument 1. LOOK AT THE EVIDENCE: This is your starting point. You look at evidence and make some type of assumption that is FACTUAL. EXAMPLE: Last year, there were over 500 incidences of concussions to players in high school football games.

STEP TWO: 2. LOOK FOR YOUR WARRANT : Look for the answers to questions such as, “WHAT ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT?” “WHAT ARE YOU TELLING ME THAT FOR?” “SO WHAT?”

STEP THREE: 3. MAKE YOUR CLAIM:(BASED ON YOUR EVIDENCE) THIS IS WHERE YOU…  DECIDE WHAT YOU THINK  STATE YOUR POSITION  GIVE SOME REASON WHY YOU DECIDED AS YOU DID  MAKE YOUR CLAIM CLEAR TO THE READER

Step Four: GATHER EVIDENCE  Use a graphic organizer to record your findings  Annotate in the margins of your own book or paper  Ask yourself questions and record these as well

Step FIVE: PLAN/STRUCTURE YOUR ESSAY  Use a GRAPHIC ORGANIZER  Create an OUTLINE THEN BEGIN WRITING YOUR FIRST DRAFT

From Beginning to End

Structure of a Classical Argument Introduction Thesis Statement (CLAIM) Background Information Reasons and Evidence The Opposing View and the Refutation Conclusions

BASICALLY, YOUR ESSAY WILL BE BUILT LIKE THIS:  Introduction: Tell them what you’re going to tell them.  Body: Tell them.  Conclusion: Tell them what you told them

THE INTRODUCTION acquaints the reader with the topic and purpose of the paper. offers a plan for the ensuing argument ENDS WITH YOUR CLAIM/THESIS STATEMENT

Methods of Composing Your Introduction  Anecdote: Tell a little story  Example: Real or hypothetical  Ask a Question: Not a stupid or obvious one  Quotation: Use a quotation from your sources or by a famous person with citation  Statistics: These are numbers and must be real with citation  Describe a striking image

Body paragraphs: (1)build upon the claims made in the introductory paragraph(s) (2)are organized with the use of topic sentences that illustrate the main idea of each paragraph. Tip: Offering a brief explanation of the history or recent developments of a topic within the introduction or early body paragraphs can help the audience become familiarized with your topic and the complexity of the issue.

Paragraphs may be ordered in several ways, depending upon the topic and purpose of your argument: GeneralSpecific Most important Least important Stronges t claim Weakest claim

INTRODUCE THE QUOTE THE QUOTE EXPLAIN THE QUOTE INTRODUCE THE QUOTE Templates for Introducing Quotes: X states, “______________” According to X, “__________” In the article, X maintains that “________________” In X’s view, “___________” X agrees when he writes, “_____________” X disagrees when she writes, “_________________” Use verbs such as: states, asserts, complains, THE QUOTE ITSELF THE QUOTATION SANDWICH WHAT THE QUOTE MEANS

EXAMPLE: Dr. Myron Allen, in the article “Where Have All the Tigers Gone?,” states that “there are currently (in 2015) only about 3,000 tigers living in the wild at this time.” If this number is correct, then how many will be left on our planet in ten years or twenty? We may well see the demise of wild tigers on earth within our lifetimes. INTRODUCES THE QUOTE THE COPIED QUOTE THE EXPLANATION OF THE QUOTE’S IMPORTANCE

INTEGRATED QUOTES IN ESSAYS COPIED QUOTE: “73% of children working in the tobacco fields…say they suffer from nausea, headaches, respiratory conditions, or other symptons.” INTEGRATED QUOTE: Some people claim that farm work does not harm children. However, today’s corporate farms have much different working conditions than the family farms of yesteryear had. Today, in the new business of farming tobacco, “73% of children working in the tobacco fields…suffer from nausea, headaches, respiratory conditions, or other symptons” (Potenza 9). Working on these types of farms hardly seems harmless now. Quote Introduction to the quote Quote Explanation of quote