Chapter Twelve The Cognitive Perspective

Schemas and Their Development Schema—a mental organization of information –Perceptual images –Abstract knowledge –Feeling qualities –Time sequence information Includes information about: –Exemplars (specific examples) –General characteristics Theories of Formations –Generated around construct of prototype (best actual or idealized member) –Represent a composite of characteristics that are relevant, but not necessary = fuzzy set

Effects of Schemas Facilitate coding of new information Fill-in information lacking from events Influence what information is remembered Can be self-perpetuating –Schemas guide what is remembered –What you remember confirms schema –Schema continues to guide what is remembered

Organization of Memory Schemas are organizations of memories Semantic Memory—organized by meaning Episodic Memory—organized by sequence of events (space and time) Script—schemas for episodic events –Results from multiple episodes of a given type

Socially Relevant Schemas Social Cognition—cognitive processes focusing on socially meaningful stimuli People form cognitive categories for: –Types of people –Gender roles –Environments –Social situations –Social relations Social cognitions differ in content and complexity from person to person, depending on experience

Self-Schemas Schematic representation of the self Larger and more complex than other schemas Has more emotional elements Effects of self-schema: –Makes it easier to remember things that fit it –Provides default information –Identifies where to look for new information –Can bias recall of past events –May be used as a default for strangers

Entity and Incremental Schemas Entity views—abilities seen as unchanging –Goal of task performance is to prove ability –Failure results in distress and desire to quit –Attend to and remember information concerning consistency Incremental views—abilities seen as increasing with experience –Goal of task performance is to extend ability –Failure seen as opportunity to increase ability –Attend to and remember information indicating change

Attribution Inferring the cause of an event Provides information important to understanding –Indicates kind of event –Hints at likelihood of future occurrence Schemas assist in making attributions beyond information that is available Self success attributed to stable internal causes (ability) Self failure attributed to unstable causes, bad luck, or too little effort

Activation and Memories Memory is organized in a network of interconnected nodes (areas of storage) Information from activated memory nodes is represented in consciousness As a node is activated, partial activation spreads to related (linked) nodes Partial activation makes it easier for information to move into consciousness –Priming—activation of a node of information in a task prior to a task of interest (experimental uses) Schematic information varies in the ease of activation depending on frequency of use

Connectionism Representations exist in patterns of activation across a neural network, rather than in nodes Patterns reflect simultaneous satisfaction of multiple constraints Particular relevance to social perceptions and decision making –Requires selection of one possibility from many –Output takes the form of only one representation at a given time Organization of patterned network can be destabilized by new inputs (e.g., ambiguous figures, self-concept)

Dual Process Models Two kinds of thought involved in cognition –Conscious processing—effortful reasoning and programs of instruction Implements rules and carries out logical steps of inference and action “Cool system,” slower, conscious, rational, evolutionarily newer Explicit knowledge –Intuitive processing—intuitive problem solving, heuristic strategies, automated processes “Insights” often shake out of the system “Hot system,” quick, automatic, experiential, evolutionarily older Implicit knowledge

Cognitive Person Variables Adequate theory of personality must take into account 5 classes of variables that are influenced by learning (Mischel) –Competencies—social skills and problem-solving strategies –Encoding strategies and personal constructs—schematic influences on individualized perspectives of the world –Expectancies—important for understanding actions Expectancies involving sequential continuity in experience Behavior-outcome expectancies — connections suggesting causal influence –Subjective values—reflected by the outcomes a person wants –Self-Regulatory Systems and Plans—setting goals, making plans, and setting plans into action

Cognitive-Affective Processing System People develop complex organizations of information about themselves and the world –These organizations have a conditional quality (hedges), which link behavior and affect to situations –Conditional qualities vary from person to person

Assessment Focused on identifying cognitive tendencies and contents of consciousness Procedures include: –Think-aloud procedures—used during problem solving –Thought/experience sampling—reports of thought and actions at scheduled or random times –Event recording/self-monitoring—reports of behavior, emotions, and thoughts associated with specific event types Important to contextualize assessment—allows identification of if…then… contingencies for behavior

Problems in Behavior Difficulties arise from: –Deficits in information-processing abilities (encoding, attention) –Faulty schemas of the world –Negative schemas about self (cognitive triad) Overgeneralization of bad outcomes Arbitrary inferences—jump to negative conclusions without supporting evidence Catastrophize

Therapy Cognitive Therapy—abandon faulty schemas and build new ones –Cognitive restructuring—identify automatic self-defeating thoughts and replace with new self-talk –Reality testing—challenge automated thought patterns to be tested against evidence