What is an Argument? What is Persuasion?

What is argument NOT? An argument is not simply a confrontational activity designed to denigrate the opposition’s position. It is usually not --An absolute truth. --A revelation or brand new insight. --The last word. --Bad-tempered complaining. --An exercise in pure logic. --A chance to prove that you’re smarter than everyone else.

What is Persuasion? One of the major types of composition/speaking whose purpose is to convince others of the wisdom of a certain idea, belief, line of action. Persuasion is calculated to arouse people to some action.

What is an argument? One of the four chief forms of discourse. Its purpose is to convince by establishing the truth or falsity of a proposition.

What is an argument? An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and research.

What is a persuasive essay? You are asked to prove something. Give reasons why. Give reasons why. Establish a line of reasoning whereby you establish your claims and persuade of their validity. Establish a line of reasoning whereby you establish your claims and persuade of their validity. Present arguments against your reasons. Show them to be false. Present arguments against your reasons. Show them to be false. Take a stand. Take a stand. Ask or call for an action. Ask or call for an action. Persuade, convince, tell why, give reasons for or against, support, attack, defend, qualify…. It would be better for students if we wore uniforms. Persuade, convince, tell why, give reasons for or against, support, attack, defend, qualify…. It would be better for students if we wore uniforms.

Argumentation/Persuasion SAME: Purpose— SAME: Purpose— TO CONVINCE TO CONVINCE DIFFERENT: DIFFERENT: Modus operandi — Modus operandi — Ways/styles of CONVINCING. Ways/styles of CONVINCING.

Broad Types of Arguments Classical / Formal: An abstract discipline; deals in absolutes. Aristotelian Aristotelian Cicero Cicero Contemporary / Informal: Does not attempt to prove absolutely; gives good reasons and persuasive arguments. Toulmin Rogerian

Aristotle/Cicero Classical Rhetorical Triangle (must BALANCE) Rhetorical Triangle (must BALANCE) Writer (ethos) Writer (ethos) Audience (pathos) Audience (pathos) Message (logos) Message (logos) Purpose/Aim/Goal Purpose/Aim/Goal Rhetorical context (background, situation, occasion) Rhetorical context (background, situation, occasion) How does your response change as the rhetorical context changes? How does your response change as the rhetorical context changes?

Aristotelian/Cicero Classical Outline of Classical Argument Outline of Classical Argument Introduction Introduction Background of Topic Background of Topic Proposition/Thesis Proposition/Thesis Partitions/Outline of what will follow Partitions/Outline of what will follow Body/Main Argument Body/Main Argument Counter Arguments Counter Arguments and Responses/Refutation Conclusion/Summary of main argument Conclusion/Summary of main argument Seeks to defeat opponent, military terminology

Toulmin / Informal Logic Claim: Statement of position, a stand (thesis statement) Claim: Statement of position, a stand (thesis statement) Reasons: Supports claims Reasons: Supports claims Warrant: Unstated assumption. The audience must accept the warrant to make an argument persuasive. Appeals to values and beliefs. Warrant: Unstated assumption. The audience must accept the warrant to make an argument persuasive. Appeals to values and beliefs. Grounds: Claims, reasons, warrants—EVIDENCE Grounds: Claims, reasons, warrants—EVIDENCE Backing: Supports the warrant. May not be accepted IF the warrant is unclear. Backing: Supports the warrant. May not be accepted IF the warrant is unclear. Conditions of rebuttal: Bring up and address the counter arguments. Conditions of rebuttal: Bring up and address the counter arguments. Qualifier: Limits a claim or its scope. (few absolutes in life!) Qualifier: Limits a claim or its scope. (few absolutes in life!)

Rogerian Argumentation: A modern alternative to traditional argument Goals: Goals: 1. Seeking common ground 2. Give credit to opponent(s)’ argument(s) 3. Building trust 4. Reducing threat 5. Avoiding confrontation Builds bridges rather than burning them.

Rogerian Argumentation: A modern alternative to traditional argument When people perceive they are being attacked, they stop listening, become defensive and perhaps even hostile. When people perceive they are being attacked, they stop listening, become defensive and perhaps even hostile. If people perceive their arguments are being heard, taken seriously, and understood, they will be more open to listening to an opponent’s position. If people perceive their arguments are being heard, taken seriously, and understood, they will be more open to listening to an opponent’s position.

How do I start? BASICS of Building an Argument Rhetorical Appeals Rhetorical Appeals Rhetorical Situations Rhetorical Situations Rhetorical Modes Rhetorical Modes Fallacies Reasoning Deductive Inductive Outlining Supporting Writing

THE ARGUMENT ESSAY PROCESS “WORK” the prompt / assignment “WORK” the prompt / assignment Deconstruct --analyze Deconstruct --analyze Mark key words/elements Mark key words/elements Choose your position (defend, challenge, qualify) Choose your position (defend, challenge, qualify) Brainstorm Brainstorm Plan Support (facts, statistics, details/description, quotations, definitions, examples, recognition of opposition, anecdotes, compare/contrast, appeal to authority, emotional appeals (diction, tone) Plan Support (facts, statistics, details/description, quotations, definitions, examples, recognition of opposition, anecdotes, compare/contrast, appeal to authority, emotional appeals (diction, tone)

THE ARGUMENT ESSAY PROCESS Outline to be sure you have all the needed elements Outline to be sure you have all the needed elements Develop the Introduction: Develop the Introduction: Refer specifically to the prompt/topic Refer specifically to the prompt/topic State your position in a clearly-worded thesis State your position in a clearly-worded thesis Develop the Body of your Essay: Develop the Body of your Essay: Support Support Transitions that connect to the thesis Transitions that connect to the thesis Develop the conclusion Develop the conclusion Return to your introduction and conclude the thought Return to your introduction and conclude the thought Proofread and edit! Proofread and edit!

WAYS TO APPROACH: Rhetorical Appeals/Triangle Logos Logos Pathos Pathos Ethos Ethos Reader Writer Text

WAYS TO APPROACH: Rhetorical Situations Purpose/Occasion Purpose/Occasion Audience Audience Genre/Medium/Design Genre/Medium/Design Stance/Attitude/Tone Stance/Attitude/Tone

WAYS TO APPROACH: Rhetorical Devices— See vocabulary for a more complete list Diction Diction Connotation Connotation Denotation Denotation Syntax Syntax Analogy Analogy Antithesis Antithesis

WAYS TO APPROACH: Argument WAYS TO APPROACH: Classical Argument Classical arguments derive from Greek and Roman philosophers and include three types of appeals: emotional appeal, or pathos—appeal to the emotions of the audience; logical appeal, or logos—appeal to reason; and ethical appeal, or ethos—the character or expertise of the speaker.

WAYS TO APPROACH: Contemporary Argument Contemporary arguments may employ strategies and appeals beyond the three that characterize classical argument. These may include, but are not limited to, argument by definition, induction, inference, and analogy.

WAYS TO APPROACH: Argument Building TERMINOLOGY to KNOW: IN Groups Analogy Analogy Antithesis Antithesis Appeal to Authority Appeal to Authority Assertion/Claim Assertion/Claim Challenge Challenge Refute Refute Dispute Dispute Fallacy Fallacy Generalization Position Qualify Rebuttal Rhetoric Support

Two main types of arguments Deductive: Deductive: A deductive argument is an argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) complete support for the conclusion. A deductive argument is an argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) complete support for the conclusion. A good deductive argument is known as a valid argument and is such that if all its premises are true, then its conclusion must be true. If all the argument is valid and actually has all true premises, then it is known as a sound argument. A good deductive argument is known as a valid argument and is such that if all its premises are true, then its conclusion must be true. If all the argument is valid and actually has all true premises, then it is known as a sound argument.

WAYS TO APPROACH: Two main types of arguments Inductive: Inductive: An inductive argument is an argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) some degree of support (but less than complete support) for the conclusion. An inductive argument is an argument such that the premises provide (or appear to provide) some degree of support (but less than complete support) for the conclusion. A good inductive argument is known as a strong (or "cogent") inductive argument. It is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true. A good inductive argument is known as a strong (or "cogent") inductive argument. It is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true.

Deductive Reasoning/Logic

Deductive Reasoning SYLLOGISM Major Premise: All dogs are brown. Major Premise: All dogs are brown. Minor Premise: My poodle Toby is a dog. Minor Premise: My poodle Toby is a dog. Conclusion: Therefore, Toby is brown. Conclusion: Therefore, Toby is brown.

Deductive Reasoning SYLLOGISM Major Premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no loyalty. Major Premise: Tyrannical rulers deserve no loyalty. Minor Premise: Saddam Hussein was a tyrannical ruler. Minor Premise: Saddam Hussein was a tyrannical ruler. Conclusion: Therefore, Hussein deserved no loyalty. Conclusion: Therefore, Hussein deserved no loyalty.

Inductive Reasoning/Logic

Reasoning involves making a generalization based on numerous facts. Reasoning involves making a generalization based on numerous facts. Generalization: a general statement, idea, or principle. Generalization: a general statement, idea, or principle.

THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY AP ARGUMENT Prompt: Defend Challenge/Refute/Dispute Qualify AP ARGUMENT Prompt: Defend Challenge/Refute/Dispute Qualify SOURCES: Current events, high school issues, journals, letters, essays, speeches, autobiographies, advertisements, quotes from literature (prose, poetry, plays), graphs, charts, advertisements.... SOURCES: Current events, high school issues, journals, letters, essays, speeches, autobiographies, advertisements, quotes from literature (prose, poetry, plays), graphs, charts, advertisements....

THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY Three “Types” of Argument Questions Typically, we speak of three “types” of argument questions: those of fact, of value, and of policy. Arguments of fact state that something is or is not the case. Causal arguments say that one event or condition leads to another or is likely to. For example, we might argue that AP students do better in college, that computers enhance learning in the classroom, that the media is responsible for the shortening of the attention span, or that mercury in the food chain or cigarette smoke in the air causes cancer. Arguments of value state that something is or is not desirable. They involve evaluations of quality or worth according to accepted criteria. For example, one might assert that this or that novel or film is of significant merit, that preemptive war is or is not a justifiable practice, that Bill Clinton was or was not a good president, that health concerns take precedence over profit. Arguments of policy state that something should or should not be done. They make recommendations for practice or implementation. For example, that the minimum wage should be increased, that stem cell research should be funded, that Huck Finn should or should not be part of the curriculum, that gay marriage should or should not be legalized, that more students should have access to AP, that the designated hitter should be eliminated from baseball (one of the finest arguments I saw at the 2004 AP English Language Reading, by the way), or that smoking should be banned from public places. This kind of argument will naturally contain components—often included as support—of those of fact and value, as my final example in each category illustrates.

THE AP ARGUMENT ESSAY 1-3 minutes reading and working the prompt 1-3 minutes reading and working the prompt 3 minutes deciding on a position 3 minutes deciding on a position minutes planning the support of your position minutes planning the support of your position 20 minutes writing the essay 20 minutes writing the essay 3 minutes proofreading 3 minutes proofreading

ARGUMENT UNIT Look at Practice Topics Build Argument knowledge base Practice AP Argument Essays (3 Essays) Write Précis (3) Read from Files, Text, Internet, and 5 Steps Move toward Synthesis Writing (2 Essays)