Semantics Sense vs. reference Phrasal semantics LING 200 Spring 2003 Reading: Files 7.2, 7.4

Sense vs. reference 1. --‘What does [kuutib] mean?’ --‘Let’s ask Joyce.’ vs. --‘Let’s ask the TA who studied Arabic.’ 2. ‘I want to be the president of the U.S.’ vs. ‘I want to be George W. Bush.’

Sense vs. reference Reference (‘extension’): identity of real world object Sense (‘intension’): (compositionally determined) meaning Same referent, unequal sense ‘Anya’ vs. ‘the TA who speaks Russian’ ‘Anya’ has no inherent meaning (female given name) cf. ‘the TA who speaks Russian’

Sense vs. reference Reference but not sense. Many proper names ‘Anya’ ‘George W. Bush’ Sense without reference ‘the queen of the United States’ ‘the B wing elevator in Padelford Hall’

Iconic vs. non-iconic reference Arbitrariness of sound  meaning [hEr] ‘hair’ vs. ‘hare’ Onomatopoeia to neigh, meow, bark, moo, oink, etc.

Iconic vs. non-iconic reference

Prototypical reference For many common nouns, the set of possible referents are clustered around a prototype. E.g. ‘bird’ Prototypical exemplars of a category are more readily processed than atypical exemplars.

Reference and prototypes Prototypes vs. set of possible referents: some set overlap possible: ‘bowl’ vs. ‘cup’

Reference and prototypes ‘a few’ vs. ‘several’ ‘blue’ vs. ‘green’

Coreference Grammatical encoding of reference Pronoun form. Reflexive pronouns: singular plural 1 myself ourselves 2 yourself yourselves 3 himself, herself, itself themselves

Coreference Aixa asked if Joyce could excuse herself. ‘herself’ must be coreferential with another NP in the same sentence ‘her’ must not be coreferential with another NP in the same sentence

Coreference Joyce burped. Aixaj asked S[if Joycei could excuse herselfi]. Aixa burped. Aixaj asked S[if Joycei could excuse herj].

Sentence (phrasal) semantics How do the meanings of lexical items combine? What are the rules for determining the relationships between complex meanings?

Sentence (phrasal) semantics Compositionality Anomaly Entailment

Compositionality Synonymous phrases It's hard to find a good latte. = A good latte is hard to find. Principle of Compositionality/Frege's Principle: Sentence meaning is determined by morpheme meaning and syntactic structure Meaning of Dave loves Rose. vs. Rose loves Dave.

Non-compositionality Idioms/proverbs: literal vs. figurative (noncompositional) meaning (‘free translation’) idiom phrasal category noncompositional meaning to spill the beans VP ‘to divulge an important secret’ to split hairs ‘to insist on minute detail’ to put one’s foot in one’s mouth ‘say something stupid, regrettable, insensitive’

More idioms to go down VP ‘to occur (important or dangerous event)’ to run up ‘to incur a large expense’ dead end NP ‘termination of street with no connection to another street’ black market ‘illegal trading or exchange’

Idioms in other languages: Sekani phrasal category literal meaning noncompositional meaning tche/ nikl VP ‘it wagged its tail’ ‘he/she/it died’ thìtshìsni/õ ‘he/she put my head in the water’ ‘he/she criticized me’ thehkhahce ilà/ NP ‘frog hand’ ‘slow, clumsy hands’

Idioms in other languages: Witsuwit’en phrasal category literal meaning noncompositional meaning [yX ste] VP ‘he/she stays home’ ‘she is pregnant’ [nyzil util/y/] ‘he/she/it likes your smell’ ‘he/she/it is used to you’ [c’t’xwts’y il] NP ‘bird backpack’ ‘large wet snowflake’ [lyap t/at p yininye] S ‘the devil fought with his wife’ ‘there was a hail storm’

Anomaly Semantically ill-formed phrases meanings that cannot combine with each other The slideshow amused the students. vs. #The slideshow amused the projector. Syntactic well-formedness independent of semantic well-formedness ‘Colorless green ideas sleep furiously’

Anomaly Anomalous expression = ‘oxymoron’ Sign in a London department store: Bargain basement upstairs On a church door: 'This is the gate of Heaven. Enter Ye all by this door.' (This door is kept locked because of the draught. Please use side door.) Outside a disco: Smarts is the most exclusive disco in town. Everyone welcome.

Entailment If X entails Y, then whenever X is true Y is also true. X: Last night I did the dishes and straightened the living room. entails: Y: Last night I did the dishes. X: Mike Price was fired. Y: Someone was fired.

Entailment Mutual entailment = complete synonymy ‘Put off’ is synonymous with ‘procrastinate about’ If The professor put off writing the paper. entails The professor procrastinated about writing the paper. and The professor procrastinated about writing the paper. entails The professor put off writing the paper. Then is synonymous with

Predicting entailment 1. Factive verbs: be sorry, regret, stop Factive verbs entail the truth of their complements.

I’m sorry you were late. entails You were late. I regret the incident. entails There was an incident. When did you stop beating your wife? entails You were beating your wife. compare other complement taking verbs, like think: I think the party is over. The party is not necessarily over.

Complements of factive verbs cannot be ‘cancelled’ Aixa is sorry the party is over (#but it’s still going on). Complements of non-factive verbs can be cancelled Aixa said the party is over (but it’s still happening). Aixa thinks the party is over (but it’s actually still in full swing).

Predicting entailment 2. Dictum de Omni If sentences X and Y differ only in that X contains a hyponym (special case) of Y, then X generally entails Y.

Dictum de Omni dill pickle is a hyponym of pickle X: Dave ate a dill pickle. entails Y: Dave ate a pickle. Japanese car is a hyponym of car X: Anya bought a Japanese car. entails Y: Anya bought a car.

Predicting entailment But: celebrity boxing is a hyponym of boxing X: Darva Conger enjoys celebrity boxing. does not entail: Y: Darva Conger enjoys (all forms of) boxing. Actually, Y entails X!

Predicting entailment 3. Dictum de nullo If sentences X and Y differ only in that X contains a hypernym (general case) found in Y, then X generally entails Y. Syntactic conditions under which Dictum de Nullo applies instead of Dictum de Omni: Negative sentences Conditional sentences Sentences containing ‘all’, ‘every’; habitual sentences

Negative sentences Seattle is a hypernym of Ballard X: ‘Bill Gates doesn't live in Seattle.’ entails Y: ‘Bill Gates doesn't live in Ballard.’

Conditional sentences sports car is a hypernym of German sports car X: If Bill bought a sports car, then it must be a nice car. entails Y: If Bill bought a German sports car, then it must be a nice car.

Sentences with 'every' boxing match is a hypernym of celebrity boxing match X: Darva Conger watched every boxing match. entails Y: Darva Conger watched every celebrity boxing match.

Habitual sentences boxing is a hypernym of celebrity boxing X: Darva Conger enjoys boxing. entails Y: Darva Conger enjoys celebrity boxing.

Entailment summary Possible to predict when some sentences entail other sentences. Depends on whether sentence contains a factive verb or not which sentence contains hypernym vs. hyponym type of sentence: positive vs. negative /conditional / ‘every’, habitual

“It’s just semantics” Semantics overlaps with morphology, syntax Semantic competence Lexical semantics Cross-linguistic variation in the number of morphemes to encode concepts Semantic relations: antonymy, synonymy, ambiguity, hyponymy, entailment Sense vs. reference, coreference Compositional and non-compositional aspects of linguistic meaning