Parenting adolescents among low- income families: The moderating effects of culture on psychological functioning over time Laura D. Pittman Michelle K. Boswell & Adeya Richmond Northern Illinois University

Abstract Although parenting is viewed as an important determinant of adolescents’ socioemotional development, the extent to which contextual factors may limit or enhance these links is still unclear. Parenting practices that typically are considered effective among Caucasian families may not be beneficial among minority families. This paper examines longitudinally how parenting is linked to adolescent socioemotional outcomes using a random sample representative of families in urban, low-income neighborhoods. This paper focused on the African American and Hispanic American adolescents in this sample. Unlike previous cross-sectional analyses, longitudinally parenting was not found to be predictive of socioemotional functioning over time. However, three significant interactions between parenting and culture were found, where African American adolescents seem to benefit less from paternal warmth and maternal school interest over time compared to Hispanic American adolescents. Given these findings, in comparison to a larger parenting literature, further investigation of how parenting functions within different cultural contexts is warranted.

Parenting There are many aspects of parenting including warmth and acceptance, monitoring, use of discipline strategies, and school involvement that are thought to influence children’s socioemotional development (e.g., Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Chase-Lansdale & Pittman, 2002). A growing literature suggests that parents still play an important role in the socioemotional development of their children as they enter adolescence (e.g., Durius et al., 2004; Galambos, et al, 2003). However, much of the existing literature does focus on middle-class European American families and there is a call to consider whether parenting functions similarly in different cultural contexts (e.g., Mason et al., 1996; Taylor, 1996).

Parenting across cultures Concerns regarding whether these parenting dimensions function similarly across various racial and ethnic groups as well as socioeconomic groups has been voiced. Some studies suggest similarities in the associations between parenting and socioemotional outcomes in adolescents (e.g., Steinberg et al. 1991), while others have found differences (e.g., Deater-Deckard & Dodge, 1997)  These inconsistencies of findings may relate to differences in samples, the specific aspect of parenting study, and consideration of whether measurement is culturally equivalent (McLoyd & Steinberg, 1998).

Welfare, Children and Families: A Three-City Study 2402 families completed both adult and youth interview at Time 1 (1999)  Children 0-4 or years old  74% overall response rate 88% of families retained at Time 2 ( )  16 months later on average Main Survey included:  Two-hour interview with mother  30 minute interview with young adolescents This paper focuses on the African American and Hispanic American young adolescents (age years) and their families who participated at both time points (N = 933)

Mothers’ Report of Socio-emotional Functioning Mothers reported on their child’s Internalizing & Externalizing Problem Behaviors using the 100-item Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991).  Alpha of Internalizing Subscale =.87 and.88 for African American and Hispanic American, respectively  Alpha of Externalizing Subscale =.89 for both African American and Hispanic American

Adolescents’ Report of Socio-emotional Functioning Adolescents reported on their Internalizing Problem Behaviors using the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (Derogatis, 2000).  Alpha =.90 for both African American and Hispanic American, respectively Adolescents reported on their delinquent behaviors (or externalizing problem behaviors as we label it) using items modified from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY; Borus, et al., 1982) and the Youth Deviance Scale (Gold, 1970; Steinberg, et al., 1991).  Alpha =.75 and.79 for African American and Hispanic American adolescents, respectively; note this is a significant difference between the two groups (p <.05)

Adolescents’ Reports of Parenting Mothers’ and fathers’ warmth  12 parent items from the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987)  Alpha for mothers =.72 for both African Americans and Hispanic Americans  Alpha for fathers =.78 and.80 for African Americans and Hispanic Americans, respectively Mothers’ monitoring  8 items regarding parental knowledge and use of curfews (adapted from Lamborn et al., 1991)  Alpha =.62 and.66 for African Americans and Hispanic Americans, respectively

Adolescents’ Reports of Parenting Mothers’ use of harsh punishment  5 items (McLoyd et al., 1994)  Alpha =.69 and.73 for African Americans and Hispanic Americans, respectively Maternal school interest  3 items developed for this study “How often has your mother checked your homework?” “How often has your mother talked to you about what you were learning in school or how you did on a test?” “How often has your mother helped you with your homework or with studying?”  Alpha =.74 and.77 for African Americans and Hispanic Americans, respectively

Background Characteristics at Time 1 Young adolescents  48% female; 52% male  Mean age: years  43% African American; 57% Hispanic American Caregivers  Mean age: Years  Mean Income-to-Needs Ratio: 0.88  34% Married; 4% Cohabiting 62% Single  35% No High School Degree

Analysis Plan As a test of cultural equivalence, the internal consistencies of the parenting and symptom measures were compared.  No significant differences were found in internal consistencies among the parenting measures nor the CBCL or BSI-18 measures  A small, but significant difference was found on the adolescents reports of delinquent behavior (p <.05) Using two waves of data, examined changes in adolescents’ socio-emotional functioning based on five parenting dimensions and culture  Included Time 1 child functioning measure as a way to control for pre-existing characteristics of the youth and family  Two models were run: (1) Time 1 functioning + demographic controls + culture + parenting dimensions (2) Time 1 functioning + demographic controls + culture + parenting dimensions + culture x parenting dimensions  All analysis weighted and run in STATA

Model 1: OLS Regressions

Model 1: OLS Regressions (continued)

Longitudinal Main Effects Few differences emerged in child functioning over time based on culture or parenting Hispanic American adolescents had lower levels of externalizing problem behaviors over time as compared African American adolescents Adolescents were reported to have more internalizing problem behaviors by their mothers over time when the adolescents reported their mothers’ using more harsh discipline techniques

Model 2 – OLS Regressions with Interactions

Fathers’ warmth x Culture Predicting Mothers’ report of Externalizing Behavior Over Time African American mothers’ report more externalizing behaviors over time when their child views their relationship with their father as more warm, while Hispanic American mothers’ report fewer externalizing behaviors over time when their perceive their relationship more warmly

Fathers’ warmth x Culture Predicting Mothers’ report of Internalizing Behavior Over Time African American mothers’ report more internalizing behaviors over time when their child views their relationship with their father as more warm, while Hispanic American mothers’ report fewer internalizing behaviors over time when their perceive their relationship more warmly.

Maternal School Interest x Culture Predicting Teens’ report of Externalizing Behavior over time African American adolescents’ report more externalizing behaviors over time when they perceive their mothers as more interested in their school work, while Hispanic American adolescents report fewer externalizing behaviors over time when they perceive their mothers as more involved in their school work.

Discussion With the strength of longitudinal analyses, parenting constructs including maternal and paternal warmth as well as maternal monitoring and school interest do not seem to be important predictors of adolescents’ psychological functioning over time. The use of harsh punishment had a small effect on increasing internalizing problem behaviors and, at a trend level, externalizing problem behaviors over time.

Discussion Tests of possibly moderating effects of parenting by culture suggest that perceptions of fathers’ warmth may differentially predict adolescents psychological functioning over time. Specifically, Hispanic American adolescents seem to benefit from a warm and trusting relationship with their fathers more so than African American adolescents. Similarly, the association between maternal school interest and adolescents’ externalizing behavior appears to be moderated by culture. Specifically, Hispanic American adolescents seem to benefit from more maternal school interest, while African Americans do not. Although further analysis is needed to disentangle these moderating effects of culture, consideration of how similar behaviors may be interpreted in different cultural contexts may explain these findings.

Discussion The findings of this investigation are limited in their generalizability. This sample was comprised of low- income African American and Hispanic families in low- income urban neighborhoods and the results may not be applicable to families in other contexts. In addition, caution is warranted given that there was not cultural equivalence in the adolescents’ reports of externalizing behaviors (i.e., involvement in delinquent behaviors). Further research with culturally diverse samples of varying socioeconomic levels would help consider whether these findings are specific to families living in poverty.

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Acknowledgements We appreciate the support to gather the data for Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three-City Study from the following government agencies and foundations: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (RO1 HD36093 "Welfare Reform and the Well- Being of Children"), Office of the Assistant Secretary of Planning and Evaluation, Administration on Developmental Disabilities, Administration for Children and Families, Social Security Administration, and National Institute of Mental Health, The Boston Foundation, The Annie E. Casey Foundation, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, The Lloyd A. Fry Foundation, The Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The Joyce Foundation, The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, The W.K. Kellogg Foundation, The Kronkosky Charitable Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, The Searle Fund for Policy Research, and The Woods Fund of Chicago. A special thank you is also extended to the families who participated in Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three-City Study.