Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure Addendum 12A: Animal Cognition and Cognitive Maps

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Not all dimensions are properties of individual stimuli Consider dimensions such as:  to the left of, to the right of  above, below  in front of, behind  before, after  brighter, darker  bigger, smaller  etc., etc., etc.,

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

Children may learn to imitate several different kinds of behavior modeled  These make up the specific classes But when they learn imitation in general (generalized imitation), they may imitate some actions they had never seen or imitated before  When this happens, imitation has become a higher-order class that contains within it the several different learned imitations as sub-classes

Children may learn to imitate several different kinds of behavior modeled  These make up the specific classes But when they learn imitation in general (generalized imitation), they may imitate some actions they had never seen or imitated before  When this happens, imitation has become a higher-order class that contains within it the several different learned imitations as sub-classes

Once generalized imitation has been created as a higher-order class, the contingencies operating on the class as a whole may be different from those operating on the specific classes Consider following orders in the military  As a higher-order class, it is maintained by social contingencies within the military  Fpr example, different contingencies may operate on following a particular order in a specific situation, as in a combat zone

Conditional Discrimination and Stimulus Classes Relations as Stimulus Dimensions Matching ‑ to ‑ Sample and Oddity Symbolic Behavior: Equivalence Classes Higher ‑ Order Classes of Behavior Learning Set Contingencies Operating on the Subclasses within Higher-Order Classes Origins of Structure

The Problem of Arbitrary Classes If we can teach a pigeon to discriminate among two arbitrary sets of stimuli (e.g., sets of photographic slides) and it does so successfully, we cannot appeal to any physical properties of the stimuli in defining the behavioral class We can teach such discriminations Discriminated operant classes are defined by common contingencies and not by properties of stimuli

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

SourceDefinition Differential reinforcement in shaping, fading and the creation of operants Creating new behavior by differentially reinforcing approximations to a new response or a new stimulus class; creating new behavior by reinforcing novel instances defined relative to the populations of which they are members Emergence based on higher- order classes Setting the occasion for new instances of the members of higher-order classes, including extensions of equivalence classes and frames Combining behavior classes: Adduction, transfer of function and their variations Bringing the properties or members of different classes together in new ways; combining multiple sources of behavior so that new functional classes emerge Sources of Novel Behavior

Problems of Taxonomy Are the classes exhaustive? Are they mutually exclusive? Are they functionally relevant? What are the limitations imposed by the environment and by the organism and its history?

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Shaping and Fading: Differential reinforcement of approximations to new classes  Shaping versus associations or discriminations: The problem of negative instances  Relevance to poverty of the stimulus: The negative instances are not a feature of shaping  Consider the phylogenic analogy: We need only consider the environments that shaped the population, and not the ones to which the population was never exposed

Sources of Novel Behavior Shaping and Fading: Differential reinforcement of approximations to a new class

Sources of Novel Behavior Shaping and Fading: Differential reinforcement of approximations to a new class Direct Reinforcement of Novelty: Novel instances defined relative to the populations that generate them

Sources of Novel Behavior Direct Reinforcement of Novelty: Novel instances defined relative to the populations that generate them (e.g., Pryor, Neuringer) The paradox: Single responses cannot have the properties of novel, variability, or stereotypy. They can only do so in the context of a distribution of responses.

38 Variability itself is a dimension of behavior that can be shaped by its consequences 38

Is there any relevant research? Verbal governance (Skinner) Aversive control (Azrin and many others) Volition and variability (Neuringer) Preference for free choice over forced choice (Catania) Sources of novel behavior (Sidman and many others)

Selection for Variation in Biological Systems The parallel in biology is that species otherwise seeming similar in phenotype can vary in their genetic diversity, and those with the greater genetic diversity have selective advantages over the others, especially in the face of changing environments. A substantial research literature now supports this conclusion.

What are the implications? You can shape using reinforcers, but not using punishers: punishers reduce rather than expand the range of variations (stoperants). Therefore reinforcers are preferable to punishers if it is assumed that a wider range of variations makes a population more viable under changing contingencies. Species at risk are especially those in very specialized environments.

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Higher-Order Classes of Behavior A class that includes within it other classes that can themselves function as operant classes (as when generalized imitation includes all component imitations that could be separately reinforced as subclasses). A higher-order class is sometimes called a generalized class, in the sense that contingencies arranged for some subclasses within it generalize to all the others. Generalized matching and verbally governed behavior are examples of higher-order classes

Verbally Governed Behavior Behavior, either verbal or nonverbal, under the control of verbal antecedents. It has also been called rule-governed behavior or instruction- following. Verbally governed behavior is an example of a higher-order class. In a higher-order class, the local contingencies that maintain particular instances may differ from the contingencies (often social) that maintain the higher-order class

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Adduction Sometimes the separate variables that are the multiple causes of a given response come together in a novel combination to produce novel behavior, as when two or more newly learned words appear together for the first time in a sentence a child has never uttered before

Multiple Causation of Verbal Behavior A ubiquitous property of verbal behavior is its multiple causation. Any verbal utterance will likely be jointly determined by nonverbal discriminative stimuli, prior verbal responses, possible reinforcing or aversive consequences, nature of the listener, condition of the speaker (including establishing operations), etc. Multiple causation sets conditions that favor adduction

51 Seeing a horse of another color 51

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Naming and Joint Control Naming includes tacting, echoic and listener behavior Joint control is stimulus control that depends on the correspondence of responses occasioned at the same time by different stimuli, as when a word is heard or spoken at the same time it is seen In joint control, common responses to different stimuli mediate judgments of equivalence or other relations, as when a child matches one arbitrary stimulus to another after having been taught to give the same name to each Joint control shares properties with the autoclitic The problem of history: discriminating that a match has occurred is a prerequisite

Sources of Novel Behavior Transfer of Function: The emergence of new relations between the behavioral classes that enter into contingencies (perhaps as adduction combined with novel instances of higher-order classes or as joint control)

Through higher-order classes, as in Baer et al.‘s generalized imitation and Horne and Lowe’s naming Through equivalence classes, as in Sidman, and their derivatives, as in Hayes’s relational frames Through discriminations based on common antecedent stimuli, as in Lowenkron’s joint control Through reinforcing effects based on similarities between one’s own behavior and the behavior of others, as in Palmer’s parity Sources of Novel Behavior

Sources of Novel Behavior in Verbal Behavior Shaping and Fading: Verbal behavior may be shaped, and verbal behavior may be brought under the control of new stimuli via fading Direct Reinforcement of Novelty: Novel verbal behavior may be reinforced either by audiences or by the consequences of behaving with regard to newly created verbal stimuli Adduction: The multiple causation of verbal behavior makes the novel coming together of members of different verbal classes virtually inevitable Emergence Based on Higher-Order Classes: The nested character of verbal behavior creates many opportunities for such emergence in both verbal-verbal relations (e.g., grammatical and semantic categories) and verbal-nonverbal relations (e.g, verbal governance). Transfer of Function: An important feature of verbal behavior is that it allows transfer of function from nonverbal to verbal classes and vice versa.

Sources of Novel Behavior Toward a Taxonomy of Novel Behavior Reinforcement of Variations: Shaping and Fading Emergence of New Responses: Higher ‑ Order Classes Equivalence Classes and Frames Combining Classes: Adduction Serial Coordinations Coordinations in Parallel Joint Control Fluency and Teaching

Motivating Variables and Reinforcer Classes Assessing Reinforcers Reinforcer Classes and Reinforcer-Specific Effects Conditioned or Conditional Reinforcement Pseudo-Reinforcement Bribes Intrinsic Reinforcers and the Hidden Costs of Reward Addendum 14A: Motivating Events in Escape and Avoidance

Motivating Variables and Reinforcer Classes Assessing Reinforcers Reinforcer Classes and Reinforcer-Specific Effects Conditioned or Conditional Reinforcement Pseudo-Reinforcement Bribes Intrinsic Reinforcers and the Hidden Costs of Reward

Motivating Variables and Reinforcer Classes Assessing Reinforcers Reinforcer Classes and Reinforcer-Specific Effects Conditioned or Conditional Reinforcement Pseudo-Reinforcement Bribes Intrinsic Reinforcers and the Hidden Costs of Reward

Motivating Variables and Reinforcer Classes Assessing Reinforcers Reinforcer Classes and Reinforcer-Specific Effects Conditioned or Conditional Reinforcement Pseudo-Reinforcement Bribes Intrinsic Reinforcers and the Hidden Costs of Reward

Clicker Training with Pets Money as a Generalized Conditional Reinforcer

Motivating Variables and Reinforcer Classes Assessing Reinforcers: Reinforcer Classes and Reinforcer-Specific Effects Conditioned or Conditional Reinforcement Pseudo-Reinforcement Bribes Intrinsic Reinforcers and the Hidden Costs of Reward

Look to the reinforcers This has mostly been about how similar contingencies can produce different kinds of behavior depending on how the reinforcers act on behavior. Individual differences in behavior are sometimes products not of different contingencies but rather of the different reinforcers that are effective for different individuals (consider the different reinforcers that maintain therapeutic and scientific and athletic and artistic and political behavior). We can learn a lot by examining the contingencies, but sometimes it is even more important for us to examine the reinforcers. We do not know enough about the conditions that establish the vast variety of reinforcers that maintain human behavior.