LEARNING I: TYPES, THEORIES, STYLES AND MEASUREMENT

Learning objectives be able to define learning understand the nature of explicit and implicit learning understand the nature of mental rehearsal understand selected cognitive theories of learning understand how dynamic systems theory explains learning understand how learning and coaching/teaching styles affect learning understand the practical implications for coaches/teachers and performers understand how we measure performance in order to infer learning

Learning A relatively permanent change in performance resulting from practice or experience (Kerr, 1982) Performance is a temporary occurrence fluctuating from time to time: something which is transitory (Kerr, 1982) We mostly infer learning from performance, therefore we should be aware of the differences between the two

Types of learning Explicit learning The ‘normal’ way of learning Normally we are given instructions or demonstrations We may set out to copy someone We consciously form explicit rules It is a working memory task In the early stages of learning sports skills, the prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, basal ganglia, parietal cortex and occipital cortex are the main areas activated Prefrontal cortex is probably responsible for the acquisition of explicit rules Motor and perceptual regions are responsible for the learning of the perceptual-motor factors involved During the consolidation phase, the hippocampus is activated When the skill becomes automatic it is controlled by the motor cortex, supplementary motor area, basal ganglia and parietal cortex Cerebellum may also be involved

Types of learning Implicit learning Non-intentional automatic acquisition of knowledge about structural relations between objects or events (Frensch, 1998) No formation of explicit rules The learning is subconscious The knowledge acquired by implicit learning is non-declarative knowledge and is stored in non-declarative LTM During the early stage of learning implicitly, the motor cortex, supplementary motor area, basal ganglia and parietal cortex are highly activated Same areas are activated during automatic stages Cerebellum also plays a large role in the later stages of the learning of some skills

b BASAL GANGLIA SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX SMA PMC SOMATOSENSORY ASSOCIATION AREA VISUAL CORTEX VISUAL ASSOCIATION AREA CEREBELLUM AUDITORY CORTEX AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA PREFRONTAL CORTEX DLPFC a HIPPOCAMPUS AMYGDALA HYPOTHALAMUS RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM Major brain regions involved in learning, highlighted in yellow. a) shows a lateral view of the left-hemisphere. The basal ganglia are not visible: their position within the brain is depicted in b). DLPFC dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: PMC premotor cortex: SMA supplementary motor area

Types of learning Mental rehearsal Mental rehearsal only works in conjunction with physical rehearsal If we think about doing something, the brain learns the same, or almost the same, as when we actually carry out the task By thinking about the skill, we build up a picture or model in our brain of how the skill should be performed The most common form of mental rehearsal is through mental imagery Using external imagery the person sees themselves performing a skill as though they were looking at a film of themselves Using internal imagery the person sees and feels the movement ‘from within’ their brain and body This is more effective

Learning theories: Fitts and Posner’s three-stage theory Cognitive stage Person tries to make sense of instructions They make a great deal of use of verbal labels In skills requiring perception and decision-making, there are often mistakes made and the person attends to irrelevant as well as relevant stimuli The motor component is characterized by crude, uncoordinated movement Prefrontal cortex is highly activated Associative stage Practice is required to perfect the skill Autonomous stage Person can perform consistently and with little overt cognitive activity

Learning theories: Gentile’s model of learning (Stage 1) Initial acquisition stage Learner gets the basic idea of what the movement involves Learns to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant cues Selective attention is developed Action plan is formulated Individual uses feedback to correct inappropriate responses and to reinforce correct movements LTM store is developed Perception, decision, efferent organization and feedback are seen as the key factors

Learning theories: Gentile’s model of learning (Stage 2) Skill refinement stage Fixation refinement of closed skills Diversification ability to use movements in open skills

Learning theories: Adam’s closed-loop theory We develop two memory traces Perceptual trace Memory for the feel of the movement This allows us to correct inappropriate actions Memory trace Memory for selection and initiation of the movement Two stages of acquisition Verbal-motor stage Use of verbal labels Person attends to irrelevant as well as relevant stimuli The motor component is characterized by crude, uncoordinated movement Practice required Motor stage Performance is autonomous

Learning theories: Schmidt’s schema theory A schema is a set of generalized rules or rules that are generic to a group of movements We develop two memory traces Recall memory Memory for choice and initiation of action Recognition memory Memory for feel of the movement Allows evaluation of ongoing movement and making changes to that movement

Schmidt’s schema theory: acquisition of schemas We develop two schemas Recall schema. We remember the desired outcome the initial conditions (e.g. the display at the beginning of the movement) the response parameters (i.e. changes in specifics of the movement for this particular response) Recognition schema. We remember the initial conditions the sensory consequences (what we expect the movement to feel like) The development of the schemas is controlled by error labelling Comparison of desired and actual outcomes

Learning theories: Anderson’s adaptive control of thought (ACT Learning theories: Anderson’s adaptive control of thought (ACT*) theory We firstly develop declarative knowledge Explicit knowledge of rules about what and how to perform a skill The we develop procedural knowledge Being able to carry out the skill Declarative knowledge leads to procedural knowledge

Learning theories: Bandura’s observational learning theory We learn by observation of the behaviour of others and the consequences of that behaviour Observation can be deliberate or incidental Mental imagery and verbal coding aid learning but Physical practice is essential

Dynamic systems theory and learning Practice leads to attunement to affordances Learning by trial and error or guided discovery Manipulation of constraints (task, environmental and organismic) aids learning This will lead to attunement to affordances and Self-organization In the early stages of learning, the degrees of freedom should be ‘frozen’ to make acquisition easier In the later stages they should be ‘unfrozen’ to allow for higher levels of skill

Learning styles Four basic styles have been identified Individuals may utilize more than one style Activists or accommodators Open-minded and willing to became involved immediately in trying out the new skill Males more activist than females Reflectors or divergers Think through a problem before trying to perform a skill They will work out alternative methods of performing a skill Like to work in small groups or pairs Theorists or assimilators Analytical Pragmatic or convergent Like to find out the answers using action rather than reflection

Learning and coaching/teaching styles Martens (1987) Command-cooperative continuum Command Practice and training are organized by the coach Coach tells the athletes what to do. Cooperative Coach involves the athletes in organization and decision making concerning what is to be done and even how it is to be done

Mosston’s teaching styles Description Command Coach makes all decisions and instructs learners during practice: everyone practices the same tasks, at the same level of difficulty Practice Coach makes all decisions but learners progress at own rate depending on their ability level Reciprocal Athletes coach one another Self-check Athletes assess their own success and failure Inclusion Athlete and coach decide on what is to be learned and the coaching methods to be used Guided discovery Athlete makes all decisions guided by the coach Divergent Coach sets problems for athletes to solve Individual programme-learner’s design Learner decides on what is to be coached Learner’s initiated style Coach only helps when asked Self-teaching Athlete takes sole responsibility for all aspects of learning A continuum from autocratic styles through cooperative to self-teaching

Measurement of learning We can not actually measure learning, we can only infer it based on performance Types of measurement Retention tests Retention is the persistence of performance over a period of no practice Transfer tests Performing the skill in a different setting Performance curves Plotting graphs of trials

Retention tests PRE-TEST Typical design for measuring the effectiveness of a learning treatment. A transfer test could replace the post- and retention tests. TREATMENT POST-TEST RETENTION TEST POST-RETENTION TEST

Dependent variables Dependent variables are the measures or scores that we use Distance in a long jump Time in a race Subjective judgment in a gymnastics competition We should never just use one score because performance varies We need to measure several attempts or trials It is better to include a measure of variation as well as mean or total scores We can compare pre-treatment totals or means to post- and retention totals or means We can calculate changes from the pre-test score known as delta (Δ)

Performance curves S C O R The dots represent scores on each trial. The dotted line is a smoothed curve which gives us a better idea of how the learner is developing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TRIALS

Types of curve Steady progress from start. Somewhat rare, only occurs with easy tasks. Slow start but then accelerates Very slow start, no learning shown. Followed by rapid acceleration but then plateaus. Learning is probably occurring in early stage but not enough to show physically. POSITIVELY ACCELERATED LINEARLY ACCELERATED Fast start but then slows OGIVE OR S-SHAPED NEGATIVELY ACCELERATED

Plateau effect There is a period of no apparent learning. As with the ogive curve, it probably is occurring but not sufficiently to be shown physically. PLATEAU

Summary Learning can be explicit or implicit Information processing theories of learning place the emphasis on the development of memory representations in the brain Dynamical Systems theory sees practice and learning as being synonymous By practising you become attuned to affordance and develop self-organization of muscles, nerves and limbs We can not actually measure learning but merely infer it from practice