Chapter 6 Aquatic Biodiversity

Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs? Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal waters of the tropics and subtropics. Formed by massive colonies of polyps. Figure 6-1

Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs? Help moderate atmospheric temperature by removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Act as natural barriers that help protect 14% of the world’s coastlines from erosion by battering waves and storms. Provide habitats for a variety of marine organisms.

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface Figure 6.2 Natural capital: the ocean planet. The salty oceans cover 71% of the earth’s surface. About 97% of the earth’s water is in the interconnected oceans, which cover 90% of the planet’s mostly ocean hemisphere (left) and 50% of its land–ocean hemisphere (right). Freshwater systems cover less than 1% of the earth’s surface. Figure 6-2

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS Figure 6-3

What Kinds of Organisms Live in Aquatic Life Zones? Aquatic systems contain floating, drifting, swimming, bottom-dwelling, and decomposer organisms. Plankton: important group of weakly swimming, free-floating biota. Phytoplankton (plant), Zooplankton (animal), Ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria) Nekton: fish, turtles, whales. Benthos: bottom dwellers (barnacles, oysters). Decomposers: breakdown organic compounds (mostly bacteria).

Life in Layers Life in most aquatic systems is found in surface, middle, and bottom layers. Temperature, access to sunlight for photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen content, nutrient availability changes with depth. Euphotic zone (upper layer in deep water habitats): sunlight can penetrate.

SALTWATER LIFE ZONES The oceans that occupy most of the earth’s surface provide many ecological and economic services. Figure 6.4 Natural capital: major ecological and economic services provided by marine systems. Scientists estimate that marine systems provide $21 trillion in goods and services per year—70% more than terrestrial ecosystems. QUESTION: Which two ecological services and which two economic services do you think are the most important? Figure 6-4

The Coastal Zone: Where Most of the Action Is The coastal zone: the warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the gently sloping, shallow edge of the continental shelf. The coastal zone makes up less than 10% of the world’s ocean area but contains 90% of all marine species. Provides numerous ecological and economic services. Subject to human disturbance.

The Coastal Zone Figure 6-5 Figure 6.5 Natural capital: major life zones in an ocean (not drawn to scale). Actual depths of zones may vary. Figure 6-5

Marine Ecosystems Figure 6-4

Fig. 6-6, p. 130 Figure 6.6 Natural capital degradation: view of an estuary taken from space. The photo shows the sediment plume at the mouth of Madagascar’s Betsiboka River as it flows through the estuary and into the Mozambique Channel. Because of its topography, heavy rainfall, and the clearing of forests for agriculture, Madagascar is the world’s most eroded country. Fig. 6-6, p. 130

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity Estuaries include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes in temperate zones and mangrove forests in tropical zones. Figure 6.7 Natural capital: some components and interactions in a salt marsh ecosystem in a temperate area such as the United States. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. The photo below shows a salt marsh in Peru. Figure 6-7

Mangrove Forests Are found along about 70% of gently sloping sandy and silty coastlines in tropical and subtropical regions. Figure 6-8

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity Estuaries and coastal marshes provide ecological and economic services. Filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. Reduce storm damage by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis. Provide food, habitats and nursery sites for many aquatic species.

Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides Organisms experiencing daily low and high tides have evolved a number of ways to survive under harsh and changing conditions. Gravitational pull by moon and sun causes tides. Intertidal Zone: area of shoreline between low and high tides.

Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides Organisms in intertidal zone develop specialized niches to deal with daily changes in: Temperature Salinity Wave action Figure 6.9 Natural capital: living between the tides. Some organisms with specialized niches found in various zones on rocky shore beaches (top) and barrier or sandy beaches (bottom). Organisms are not drawn to scale. Figure 6-9

Barrier Islands Low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore from a coastline. Primary and secondary dunes on gently sloping sandy barrier beaches protect land from erosion by the sea. Figure 6.10 Natural capital: primary and secondary dunes on gently sloping sandy barrier beaches help protect land from erosion by the sea. The roots of grasses that colonize the dunes help hold the sand in place. Ideally, construction is allowed only behind the second strip of dunes, and walkways to the beach are built over the dunes to keep them intact. This helps preserve barrier beaches and protect buildings from damage by wind, high tides, beach erosion, and flooding from storm surges. Such protection is rare because the short-term economic value of oceanfront land is incorrectly considered much higher than its long-term ecological value. Rising sea levels from global warming may put many barrier beaches under water by the end of this century. Figure 6-10

Threats to Coral Reefs: Increasing Stresses Biologically diverse and productive coral reefs are being stressed by human activities. Figure 6.11 Natural capital: some components and interactions in a coral reef ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers, primary consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. See photos of a coral reef in Figure 6-1 and photo 10 in the Detailed Contents. Figure 6-11

Natural Capital Degradation Fig. 6-12, p. 135 Coral Reefs Ocean warming Soil erosion Algae growth from fertilizer runoff Mangrove destruction Bleaching Rising sea levels Increased UV exposure Damage from anchors Damage from fishing and diving Figure 6.12 Natural capital degradation: major threats to coral reefs. QUESTION: Which three of these threats do you think are the most serious? Fig. 6-12, p. 135

Biological Zones in the Open Sea: Light Rules Euphotic zone: brightly lit surface layer. Nutrient levels low, dissolved O2 high, photosynthetic activity. Bathyal zone: dimly lit middle layer. No photosynthetic activity, zooplankton and fish live there and migrate to euphotic zone to feed at night. Abyssal zone: dark bottom layer. Very cold, little dissolved O2.

Effects of Human Activities on Marine Systems: Red Alert Human activities are destroying or degrading many ecological and economic services provided by the world’s coastal areas. Figure 6.13 Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s marine systems. QUESTION: Which two of these threats do you think are the most serious? Figure 6-13

FRESHWATER LIFE ZONES Freshwater life zones include: Standing (lentic) water such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands. Flowing (lotic) systems such as streams and rivers. Figure 6.14 Natural capital: major ecological and economic services provided by freshwater systems. QUESTION: Which two ecological services and which two economic services do you think are the most important? Figure 6-14

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff, and groundwater seepage consisting of: Littoral zone (near shore, shallow, with rooted plants). Limnetic zone (open, offshore area, sunlit). Profundal zone (deep, open water, too dark for photosynthesis). Benthic zone (bottom of lake, nourished by dead matter).

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions During summer and winter in deep temperate zone lakes the become stratified into temperature layers and will overturn. This equalizes the temperature at all depths. Oxygen is brought from the surface to the lake bottom and nutrients from the bottom are brought to the top. What causes this overturning? http://faculty.gvsu.edu/videticp/stratification.htm

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions Figure 6.15 Natural capital: distinct zones of life in a fairly deep temperate zone lake. Figure 6-15

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support. Figure 6-16

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support. Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lake: Usually newly formed lake with small supply of plant nutrient input. Eutrophic (well nourished) lake: Over time, sediment, organic material, and inorganic nutrients wash into lakes causing excessive plant growth.

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing Cultural eutrophication: Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and urban and agricultural areas can accelerate the eutrophication process.

Freshwater Streams and Rivers: From the Mountains to the Oceans Figure 6.17 Natural capital: three zones in the downhill flow of water: source zone containing mountain (headwater) streams; transition zone containing wider, lower-elevation streams; and floodplain zone containing rivers, which empty into the ocean. Water flowing from mountains to the sea creates different aquatic conditions and habitats. Figure 6-17

Case Study: Dams, Wetlands, Hurricanes, and New Orleans Dams and levees have been built to control water flows in New Orleans. Reduction in natural flow has destroyed natural wetlands. Causes city to lie below sea-level (up to 3 meters). Global sea levels have risen almost 0.3 meters since 1900.

Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges Inland wetlands act like natural sponges that absorb and store excess water from storms and provide a variety of wildlife habitats. Figure 6-18

Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges Filter and degrade pollutants. Reduce flooding and erosion by absorbing slowly releasing overflows. Help replenish stream flows during dry periods. Help recharge ground aquifers. Provide economic resources and recreation.

Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems Dams, cities, farmlands, and filled-in wetlands alter and degrade freshwater habitats. Dams, diversions and canals have fragmented about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers. Flood control levees and dikes alter and destroy aquatic habitats. Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to streams and rivers. Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled for agriculture or (sub)urban development.

Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems These wetlands have been ditched and drained for cropland conversion. Figure 6-19