I am a senior researcher at SUM with a doctoral degree in biology. The theses was based on an interdisciplinary study in the rainforest of Guatemala. Now working on two EU projects. SUM 4011 A Introduction to research design and different research tools 1

Research tools and methods. Prescribed texts - Read the papers and comprehend the object of each paper, pay attention to different methodologies, form and structure. - Read them critically. - Don’t pay attention to the statistically analysis. 2

Lecture 1: Introduction to research design, and different research methods -Defining the frames of the study. - Different research methods: -experimental studies / observational studies / surveys / theoretical study - Important aspects of sampling design - Field work / lab work? - Data analysis 3

Research tools and methods. 1. The statement of the problem/the purpose of the study -The statement of the problem serves as a guideline throughout the design of the project. -The objective follows the statement of the problem -And the methodology must serve the objectives of the study 4

Defining the frames of the study. 2. A small short-term study, or a large long-term study? - Do you want an in-depth study? -Easy to be overly enthusiastic with regard to what can be achieved. -The size of the project has important budget and resource implications. 5

Defining the frames of the study. How do time and effort overlap? Long field work involves at least three field work periods. Allow an in-depth analysis of a situation. Time is available for quantitative analysis. Allow a broader scope of the study. Time is available for voucher collections. 6

How do time and effort overlap? Nesheim et al., (9 months + social anthropology research Stige et al., several researchers, time period from ; Peres et al., (22 tree populations), 14 researchers, several ecological factors recorded Tuomisto et al km long transect, but only 2m wide,, 8.6 HA (4 researchers) DISCUSS time and effort Taking a look at the prescribed articles, how would we characterize the length of the field period documented in these articles?

3. An Interdisciplinary / multidisciplinary study? –Research often inflicts on, or poses assertion involving other disciplines. –Be aware of the competence of authors (and your own). –Is it possible for one person to be competent in more than one discipline? 7

3. An Interdisciplinary study? –Does the project touch upon other disciplines? -Be ware of own competence. –How to achieve inter-disciplinarity? Common field period? Meeting arenas? Other? –Project leader/coordinator should be identified. –Group communication and group organization important aspects. Cooperation or not? 8

4. Hypothesis or research questions? –To work by a hypothesis may sharpen and simplify, it is however, best used in lager phases of the investigation, or when substantial knowledge of the system is already obtained. –For a hypothesis to be tested, certain statistical assumptions needs to be met. Ex. Peres et al.: Patterns of variation in population size structure are consistent with recruitment bottleneck resulting from long-term harvest. –Research questions enables a broader explorative focus of the investigation, best used in initial phases. Ex. Stige et al.: 1. How do these effects differ geographically and 2. how do they differ among crop or animal types? 3. How much food to the effects correspond to in terms of the number of people who could be fed on above or below-average production? 9

4. Different types of studies –Experimental studies –Observational studies –Theoretical studies –Surveys 10

Experimental studies are those which include manipulation of predictor variable and randomization of treatments. Experiments are the best tools for establishing causal relationships empirically. Highly controlled studies, such as laboratory experiments, may not give rise to realistic results. There is usually a trade-off between control and realism. - Experimental studies 11

- Experimental studies An example : Estimating pine seedling response to ozone and acidic rain. –Ozone level (treatment) was forced into the chambers surrounding the plants. Different levels assigned at random. Four replicates of each level. –Acidic rain levels were imposed by dispensing volumes of premixed solutions (natural rain was excluded). Different levels assigned at random. Four replicates of each level. –Each chamber can receive only one level of the ozone-acidic rain combination. – Thus the experiment involved both manipulation of predictor variable and randomization of treatments!! 12

- Observational studies Observational studies are controlled studies designed with respect to a particular hypothesis, but which lack randomisation of treatments, i.e. there are treatments but these are not randomized. Such studies usually involve exploring relationships between a predestined set of response and predictor variables in a natural setting. Such studies are weaker in control than experimental studies, but are usually stronger in realism and representation. Observational studies (and surveys) often precede experimental studies. 13

- Observational studies Which of the articles would represent an observational study, and why? 14 The Peres et al. article might serve as an example of an observational study. It is a controlled study as it tries to test a hypothesis, and the response variable (the tree populations) were subject to different treatment levels; levels of seed exploitation – persistently harvested stands, unharvested, and lightly harvested stands, moderately harvested stands. -Why is this not an experimental study? -If by any means and experimental study would be possible how would that increase the reliability of results?

- Observational studies An example: Migration in endangered butterfly. –Measured local population size of the butterfly in 50 discrete habitat patches within an area of 15 km 2, and habitat quality, vegetation height, and an index of isolation of habitat (patch). –Aim at predicting the local population density of butterfly, and relate densities to the habitat characteristics (treatments). –Thus, there are treatments, but there are no randomization of treatments! 15

- Theoretical studies Theoretical studies, seeking a variety of relevant data sources –documentary studies, –preparing instruments and tools for data collection and analysis, – theoretical re-interpretation –The Ortner article in the compendium, could serve as an examples of theoretical studies. –What about the articles prescribed for these these lectures? 16

- Surveys Descriptive enumerative studies that are not based on any particular hypotheses are termed surveys. The central design issue in surveys is sampling. When designing a study, decisions have to be made regarding allocation of effort, the size of each sample, number of replicates and which values the predictor variable should take. An example of a survey could by the study by Nesheim et al. in the compendium. The informants are the sample and the different species are the predictor variables. 17

Some important concepts Randomization – what and why? (it concerns two aspects) 18 One, when selecting sample units, and two, randomization in manipulative experiments. With randomization we avoid potential biases in empirical studies, any statistical dependencies between sampling units Replication - what and why? Bias what ? You replicate to increase reliability It is a statistical dependency between sampling units, - in other words, the selected distribution of study units are dependent, thus the results may be wrong ie. will not likely reflect the whole study population.

The assignment for the next seminar: Design an interdisciplinary research project You need to introduce the project, include a statement of the problem Study design: –Research questions /hypothesis ?, Which disciplines –Who / what will be studied –How will the informants / study units be selected? –Numbers? Where ? –What relationship will be examined – how will you do it (what will be surveyed, measured, interviewed which tools ?) Remember the time frame, is the project possible 19

The assignment for the next seminar: Some possible subjects for analysis: Desertification in the Sahel belt The development of a national park in a biodiversity hot spot area Pollution in a small community causing health problems Agriculture and pesticides and herbicides Knowledge of nature by a community Energy consumption 20