© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Sports in Society: Issues & Controversies Chapter 7 Violence in Sports: How Does Affect Our Lives?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Statements about violence in sports may be confusing because people fail to define important terms.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Definition of Violence The use of excessive physical force, which causes or has the potential to cause harm or destruction *** Violence is not always illegal or disapproved It may be praised and lauded as necessary When violence involves widespread rejection of norms, it may signal anarchy When violence involves extreme over conformity to norms, it may signal fascism

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Definition of Aggression Verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person *** Aggression is not the same as trying hard, or being assertive or achievement oriented Intimidation refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence in sports is not new, but not all sports are violent. “Now that we’ve invented violence, weneed a sport to use it in.”

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence in Sports History Research shows that violence was more severe in the past - on & off the field Rates of sports violence have not increased over time Violence in sports is an issue today because it may serve to reproduce a form of gender ideology that privileges men over women at the same time that it endangers many men.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Types of On-the-field Violence 1.Brutal body contact 2.Borderline violence 3.Quasi-criminal violence 4.Criminal violence

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. When violence is associated with excellence, athletes may learn to see it as a normal part of sports.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence As Overconformity to the Sport Ethic (I) Coaches may expect players to use violence Violence often attracts media attention Players may not like violence, even though most accept it as part of the game Quasi- and criminal violence are routinely rejected by athletes and spectators (continued)

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence As Overconformity to the Sport Ethic (II) Violence may be related to insecurities in high performance sports Expressions of violence are related to masculinity, but not limited to men Physicality creates drama and excitement, strong emotions, and special bonds among all athletes, male and female

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Commercialization and Violence Some athletes are paid to do violence Commercialization and money expand the visibility of violence in sports and encourage a promotional rhetoric that uses violent images Violence is not caused by TV and money – it existed long before TV coverage and big salaries

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. If we want to understand violence in sports, we must understand gender ideology and issues of masculinity in culture.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence and Masculinity Violence is grounded in general cultural norms Violence in sports is not limited to men Playing power and performance sports often are ways to prove masculinity

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Some athletes in quad rugby use a highly masculinized vocabulary to describe the intimidation and violence that occur in their games. This may challenge stereotypes about people with a disability, but...

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.... it also reaffirms a gender ideology in which manhood is defined in terms of the ability to do violence; this glorifies an orientation that often leads to risky actions and disabling accidents.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Ableism a web of ideas and beliefs that people use to classify as normal and superior the bodies they perceive to be unimpaired and to classify as subnormal and inferior those they perceive to be (dis)abled. *** This ideology is used widely, even by some people with disabilities

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence, Masculinity, Social Class, & Race Among men from low-income backgrounds, violence may be perceived to bring respect Black men may threaten or use violence to exploit stereotypes held by whites

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. In certain sports, violence is taught as a strategy. When are you gonna learn when it’s necessary to use unnecessary roughness.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence Is Institutionalized in Some Sports In non-contact sports, violence is usually limited to using violent images in talk In contact men’s sports, players learn to use violence as a strategy Enforcers & goons are paid to do violence In women’s contact sports, violence may be used as a strategy, but not to prove femininity

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Pain and Injury As the Price of Violence A popular paradox in today’s sports: People accept violence while being concerned about injuries caused by violence Disabling injuries caused by violence in some sports are serious problems Dominant ideas about masculinity are related to high injury rates in men’s sports

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Controlling On-the-field Violence Brutal body contact is the most difficult form of violence to control Most injuries occur on “legal hits” The most effective strategies might involve: Suspensions for players Fines for team owners

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Off-the-field Violence Data on carryover are inconclusive Assault and sexual assault rates among male, heterosexuals are a serious problem in U.S. society Debates about whether rates are higher among athletes distract attention from the problem of violence in culture There is a need to understand the dynamics of such violence perpetrated by athletes

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Violence Against Women (I) Violence is related to 1.Support from fellow athletes for using physical force as a strategy 2.Perceived cultural support for domination as a basis for status & identity among men 3.Social bonds created by collective overconformity to the norms of the sport ethic (continued)

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Hypotheses About Male Athletes’ Violence Against Women (II) Violence is related to 4.Collective HUBRIS and the notion that outsiders do not deserve respect 5.The belief that women constitute “groupies” in sport worlds 6.Institutional support for elite athletes regardless of their actions 7.Institutional failures to hold athletes accountable for deviance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Symbols such as the skull and crossbones are part of a discourse that connects masculinity with the ability to do violence.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning to Control Violence through Sports Control may be learned if sport cultures emphasize: Non-violence Self-control Respect for self and others Physical fitness Patience

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence Is Most Likely When: Sports are organized in ways that Produce HUBRIS Separate athletes from the community Encourage athletes to think that others do not deserve their respect

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence in Sports & Gender Ideology Doing violence in sports reproduces the belief that “men are superior to women” Power & performance sports, when they encourage violence, emphasize difference between men and women Sports violence reproduces an ideology of male entitlement

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Violence Among Spectators Little research on how watching sports may influence violence in everyday relationships Spectators at non-contact sports have low rates of violence Spectators at contacts sports have rates of violence that constitute a problem in need of analysis and control Rates today are lower than rates in the past

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. The language used by sport spectators refers to violence, but are they are violent people?

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. General Factors Related to Violence at Sport Events 1.Action in the sport event itself 2.Crowd dynamics & the situation in which spectators watch the event 3.Historical, social economic, & political context in which the event is planned and played

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Research is needed on the celebratory riots increasingly associated with certain sports

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Crowd Dynamics & Situational Factors Related to Spectator Violence Crowd size Composition of crowd Meaning and importance of event History of relationship between teams Crowd control strategies at event Alcohol consumption by spectators Location of event Motivations for attending the event Importance of teams as sources of identity for spectators

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Terrorism as Spectator Violence  Terrorism has occurred at sports events in the past (eg.: 1972 Olympics)  Current threats of terrorism have increased security at sport venues  Understanding terrorism requires increased awareness of global issues

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Controlling Crowd Violence Be aware of the following factors: 1.Perceived violence on the field is positively related to crowd violence 2.Crowd dynamics and conditions 3.Historical, social, political, & political issues underlying spectator orientations

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Controlling violence by creating anti-violence norms Employ visible coaches and athletes to give anti- violence messages Use on field rituals to highlight connections between opponents Make spectators aware of anti-violence norms; promote civility towards other fans Regulate alcohol consumption Limit the use of social control methods that dehumanize spectators or limit attendance

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. ASSIGNMENT: Violence & Sport Students are to bring an article about an athlete and violence. Be prepared to give a brief summary about the article. Present one question to the class related to the article.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. REVIEW Define: Violence, Aggression, Intimidation, and And Ableism Review violence in sport history Types of on the field violence Types of off the field violence Commercialization & violence Review statements on violence & masculinity How to control violence through sports Spectator violence Male athletes violence and women Review all true and false online

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Position Paper Violence in Sports: How Does Affect Our Lives?