Unit III: Ecosystem Ecology Chapter 6-Population and Community Ecology

I. Levels of Organization Organism→Species→Population→ Community→Ecosystem→Biosphere

I. Population Abundance and Distribution Populations are dynamic: constantly changing; inputs and outputs Population Characteristics: – Size (N): Total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time. – Density: number of individuals per unit area. Used to set hunting and fishing limits, food supply

A population of gray wolves has a growth rate (r) of 0.2 / year. If the population starts out with 100 individuals, how many would you expect after 1 year? 2 Years? What would be the

Distribution: How they occupy space; how they are distributed with respect to one another Clumping: most common; pack of wolves, flock of birds, school of fish; cluster where resources available, helps protect from predators, better hunting success. Uniform distribution: common where resources are scarce; distance between neighboring individuals is maximized to avoid competition or avoid territoriality; penguins, creosote bush (terpenes) Random dispersion: least common; position of each individual is independent of the other individuals; occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent; dandelions, oyster larvae carried by ocean currents.

Factors that influence population size: Environmental Resistance Factors – Density Dependent Factors: Influence an individuals probability of survival and reproduction in a manner that depends on the size of the population  competition, predation, disease – Density Independent Factors: have same effect on an individual's probability of survival  fire, drought, hurricane, pest spraying

Limiting Factor/Limiting Resource: A resource that a population cannot live without and which occurs in quantities lower than the population would require to increase in size. Carrying Capacity: (K) the population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and necessities available in the environment

Growth Models Growth rate: Number of offspring an individual can produce in a given period of time, minus deaths of the individual or offspring during the same period of time. Intrinsic Growth Rate (r) is the rate at which a population would grow if it had unlimited resources. Population growth is affected by biotic or intrinsic factors that are built into the genetic basis of each species. This is known as biotic potential: the maximum size a population would get it there were nothing holding it back.

Exponential Growth Model Exponential Growth Model: Populations growing at a fixed rate. When population are not limited by resources their growth is very rapid, as more growths occur with each step in time. Represented by a J-shaped curve

Logistical Growth Model Populations can not grow at an exponential rate indefinitely. Logistic growth: exponential at first but slows as population reaches carrying capacity. Sigmoid (s shaped) curve

Together, biotic potential and environmental resistance determine carrying capacity (K) Environmental Resistance + Biotic Potential =Carrying Capacity

Variations on the Logistic Growth Model Some populations will overshoot K, there will be a lack of resources and the population will experience a die- off/crash. Reindeer of St. Paul Island.

Variations to Logistical growth Predator-Prey Cycles Canada Lynx and Snowshoe Hare- records estimated from Hudson Bay Co. show oscillations of abundance, with lynx pop. Peaking 1-2 years after the hare population

Reproductive Strategies Biotic or Intrinsic factors are specific to each species and include  Age of reproductive maturity  Number of offspring per reproductive event  Number of reproductive events per lifetime  These factors together are referred to as fecundity/fertility.  r strategists (r-selected species) High intrinsic growth rate because they reproduce often and produce large number of off spring. Populations do not typically remain near K, but exhibit rapid growth followed by overshoots and die-offs  K strategists (K-selected species) Low intrinsic growth rate so pop increases slowly until reach K. Fluctuations are small

Survivorship Curves Late Loss Constant Loss Early Loss Late Loss Constant Loss

Species Interactions Competition: Struggle of individuals to obtain a limited resource Competitive Exclusion Principle: Two species competing for same limited resource cannot coexist

Resource Partitioning: results from competition, two species divide a resources based on behavior or morphology.

Predation: Use or one species by another species True Predators: Kill prey and consume most of what they kill Parasitism: One species (the parasite) feeds on part of another organism (the host) usually by living on or in the host. Parasite benefits/host is harmed. Mutualism: two species or a network of species interact in a way that benefits both. Commensalism: an interaction that benefits one species but has little, if any effect on the other species

Mutualism

Commensalism

Indicator: Amphibians, Birds, Butterflies Habitat Loss, Increases in UV, Parasites, Pollution (pesticides), Climate change, Overhunting Butterflies as Indicator Species

Keystone: American Alligator Dig holes that hold freshwater during dry spells and serve as refuges for aquatic life and provide fresh water

Foundation: create and enhance habitat that benefit other species Beaver: build a dam, create a pond, where other organisms live. Bat and bird species that regenerate deforested areas and spread fruit plants in their droppings.

Composition of a Community Changes over Time Primary Succession: series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before.; gradual; communities in a lifeless area. NO SOIL/NO BOTTOM SEDIMENT; Examples:newly exposed or deposited surfaces, such as landslips, volcanic lava and d ebris, elevated sand banks and dunes, quarried rock faces. Pioneer Species: First to colonize an area Secondary Succession: series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. Examples:areas which have been cleared of existing vegetation (farming/logging/mining) or destructive events such as fires. Secondary succession is usually much quicker than primary succession because there is existing soil and a seed bank Studies suggest that fairly frequent, moderate disturbance leads to greatest diversity-why?

Aquatic Succession

Theory of Island Biogeography Number of types of species influenced by size and distance from mainland Larger habitats have more species-why? Closer to other habitat = more species. Why?

Central Park-New York City

Reintroducing Wolves in Yellowstone hHbc hHbc Xz-Q Xz-Q