Bell Ringer What is the importance of Carbon in living things? Copyright Cmassengale1

Bell Ringer Explain what organic chemistry means? What is a polymer? What is a monomer? Copyright Cmassengale2

Bell Ringer What is a monosaccaride? Give an example. What is a disaccaride? Give an example. What is a polysaccaride? Give an example. Copyright Cmassengale3

Bell Ringer Compare the structure of monosaccarides, disaccarides, and polysaccarides. Copyright Cmassengale4

Bell Ringer Are Carbohydrates monomers, polymers or both? Explain. Copyright Cmassengale5

Bell Ringer What 4 types of carbon compounds are essential for living things? Provide an example for each. Copyright Cmassengale6

Bell Ringer How do plants get the nitrogen they need (where and what form)? What do plants do with the nitrogen? Copyright Cmassengale7

Bell Ringer Are proteins monomers or polymers or both? Explain. Copyright Cmassengale8

9 Intro to Carbon-based Molecules: Organic Chemistry Copyright Cmassengale

10 Carbon-based Molecules Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Copyright Cmassengale

Organic vs. Inorganic All compounds can be classified into 2 broad categories: Organic Compounds- contain carbon atoms Examples: Proteins, DNA, Sugars, Fats Inorganic Compounds- do not contain carbon atoms Examples: Ammonium (NH 4 + ) and Nitrate (NO 3 - ) Copyright Cmassengale11

12 Carbon is a Versatile Atom It has four valence electrons Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds Copyright Cmassengale

13 Carbon can use its bonds to:: Attach to other carbons Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons (chains, branched chains, and rings) Copyright Cmassengale

14 Hydrocarbons The simplest carbon compounds … Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms Copyright Cmassengale

15 Large Hydrocarbons: Are the main molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars The hydrocarbons of fat molecules provide energy for our bodies Copyright Cmassengale

16 Shape of Organic Molecules Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape The shape determines its function in an organism Copyright Cmassengale

17 Giant Molecules - Polymers Large molecules that consist of repeated, linked units are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller, simpler molecules called monomers Biologists call these large polymers macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale

18 Examples of Macromolecules Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

19 Most Macromolecules are Polymers Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer (Nucleotide) Copyright Cmassengale Nucleic Acid Polymer (DNA)

20 Linking Monomers to Make Polymers Cells link monomers by a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water to form bonds) EX: This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar Remove H Remove OH H 2 O Forms Copyright Cmassengale Each time a monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released

21 Breaking Down Polymers Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water to break bonds). This is the reverse of a condensation reaction. Water added to split a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale

22 Macromolecules in Organisms There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

Carbohydrates Copyright Cmassengale23

24 Carbohydrates Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 Can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides Copyright Cmassengale

25 Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas (Isomers) C 6 H 12 O 6 Copyright Cmassengale Monomers of Carbohydrates

26 Monosaccharides Glucose- main source of energy for cells Fructose -found in fruits Galactose – found in milk -OSE ending means SUGAR Copyright Cmassengale

27 Isomers Glucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same Copyright Cmassengale C 6 H 12 O 6

28 Rings In aqueous (watery) solutions, monosaccharides form ring structures Copyright Cmassengale

29 Cellular Fuel Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work Copyright Cmassengale Glucose Ring Structure

30 Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (condensation) Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond Copyright Cmassengale

31 Disaccharides Common disaccharides include:  Sucrose (table sugar)  Lactose (Milk Sugar)  Maltose (Grain sugar ) Copyright Cmassengale

32 Disaccharides Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose Copyright Cmassengale

33 Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates Composed of many monosaccharides linked together to form a polymer Copyright Cmassengale

34 Examples of Polysaccharides Starch Glycogen Cellulose Glucose Monomer Copyright Cmassengale

35 Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants It includes only glucose monomers Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet Copyright Cmassengale

36 Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals. It is a branched chain of glucose monomers Animals store glycogen for energy Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers Copyright Cmassengale

37 Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth It provides structure and support to plant cell walls It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber Copyright Cmassengale

38 Cellulose SUGARS Copyright Cmassengale

39 Dietary Cellulose Most animals cannot digest cellulose to get nutrients They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose Copyright Cmassengale

40 Sugars in Water Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water They are hydrophilic, or “water- loving” WATER MOLECULE SUGAR MOLECULE -OH groups make them water soluble Copyright Cmassengale

Lipids Copyright Cmassengale41

42 Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” Includes triglycerides, phospholipids fats, waxes, steroids, pigments& oils Do NOT mix with water Copyright Cmassengale Large, nonpolar organic molecules More carbon and hydrogen atoms than oxygen atoms

43 Function of Lipids cushion and protect organs Fats store energy (more than carbohydrates) in long term storage, help to insulate the body, and cushion and protect organs Copyright Cmassengale

44 Types of Fatty Acids Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons ) Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons ) Copyright Cmassengale

45 Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain Double bond in carbon chain Copyright Cmassengale

46 Triglyceride Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic Alcohol (-OL ending) Copyright Cmassengale

47 Triglyceride Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains Copyright Cmassengale

48 Fats in Organisms Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening) Copyright Cmassengale

49 Fats in Organisms Most plant and fish oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids and high in unsaturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils ) Copyright Cmassengale

50 Fats Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains Glycerol Fatty Acid Chain Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol Copyright Cmassengale

Waxes A wax is a structural lipid Contains a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain. Waxes are waterproof and form protective coatings on plants and protective layers in animals (such as earwax) Copyright Cmassengale51

52 Lipids & Cell Membranes Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic) Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic) Copyright Cmassengale

53 Steroids The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids Cholesterol Testosterone Estrogen Copyright Cmassengale

Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale54

55 Nucleic Acids Store and transfer hereditary (genetic) information Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist --- DNA & RNA Copyright Cmassengale Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous

56Copyright Cmassengale

57 Nucleic Acids Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Suga r Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Nucleotide Copyright Cmassengale

58 Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer Copyright Cmassengale

59 Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale

60 Bases Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Thymine (T)Cytosine (C) Adenine (A)Guanine (G) – Adenine (A) – Guanine (G) – Thymine (T) – Cytosine (C) Copyright Cmassengale

61 Nucleotide Monomers Form long chains called DNA Backbone Nucleotide Bases DNA strand Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Copyright Cmassengale

62 DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Contains the sugar deoxyribose Base pair Double helix Copyright Cmassengale

63 RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Sugar (ribose) Phosphate group Uracil Copyright Cmassengale

64 ATP – Cellular Energy ATP is used by cells for energy Adenosine triphosphate Made of a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups Copyright Cmassengale

ATP – Cellular Energy Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of ATP The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH ENERGY Breaking the last phosphate bond releases energy for cellular work and produces ADP and a free phosphate ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be rejoined to the free phosphate to make more ATP Copyright Cmassengale65

Proteins Copyright Cmassengale66

67 Proteins Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Copyright Cmassengale Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

68 20 Amino Acid Monomers Copyright Cmassengale

69 Structure of Amino Acids Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it: Amino group –NH 2 Carboxyl group -COOH Hydrogen -H Side group -R Amino group Carboxyl group R group Side groups Leucine -hydrophobic Serine-hydrophillic Copyright Cmassengale

70 Linking Amino Acids Cells link amino acids together to make proteins The process is called condensation or dehydration Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Carboxyl Amino Side Group Dehydration Synthesis Peptide Bond Copyright Cmassengale

Dipeptide- two amino acids bonded together Polypeptide- long chains of amino acids. Proteins are composed of one or more polypeptides Copyright Cmassengale71

72 Functions of Proteins Copyright Cmassengale 1.Enzymes (saliva and catalase) 2.Structure (keratin and collagen) 3.Transport (molecules in and out of cell) 4.Movement (muscles) 5.Defense against disease (antibodies) 6.Storage (bean seed proteins) 7.Others

73 Proteins as Enzymes Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction Copyright Cmassengale

74 Enzymes Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. Enzymes are globular proteins. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate (the reactant being catalyzed). Copyright Cmassengale

75 Enzyme + Substrate = Product Copyright Cmassengale

76 How the Enzyme Works Enzymes are reusable!!! Active site changes SHAPE Called INDUCED FIT Copyright Cmassengale

77 Primary Protein Structure The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Called polypeptide Amino Acid Copyright Cmassengale

78 Protein Structures Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms because R groups interact with each other In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure Copyright Cmassengale

79 Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS Hydrogen bond Pleated sheet Amino acid (a) Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix (b) Secondary structure Polypeptide (single subunit) (c) Tertiary structure (d) Quaternary structure Copyright Cmassengale

80 Denaturing Proteins Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures Copyright Cmassengale

81 Changing Amino Acid Sequence Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease (a) Normal red blood cellNormal hemoglobin (b) Sickled red blood cellSickle-cell hemoglobin Copyright Cmassengale

82 Other Important Proteins Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen The cell membrane also contains proteins Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells Copyright Cmassengale

83 INSULIN Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids Copyright Cmassengale

84 Summary of Key Concepts Copyright Cmassengale

85 Macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale

86 Macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale