CHAPTER 5 : Memory, Learning, and Behavior Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Ethology –The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. Fixed Action Pattern –A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal ’ s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Ethology An example of a fixed action pattern can be seen in the stickleback fish. This fish attacks all forms that have a red belly, even those that do not look like a fish. The red belly is the stimulus that triggers this fixed action pattern. Stickleback Models Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Defining Learning A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. –Adaptation by learning is flexible. –Humans adapt to life ’ s demands by learning and not by instinct. –The key to learning is association. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Habituation The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure –It is the simplest form of learning. –Note here that rats repeatedly exposed to a cat ’ s odor, and no cat, hid less over time. Habituation of Fear Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Classical Conditioning –A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning). Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another. This type of learning involves An unconditioned stimulus An unconditioned response A conditioned stimulus A conditioned response Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery An unconditioned stimulus (US) –A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response. Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli In Pavlov ’ s experiments, the US was the food. An unconditioned response (UR) –An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful In Pavlov ’ s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery A conditioned stimulus (CS) –A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US. In Pavlov ’ s experiments, the CS was the bell. A conditioned response (CR) –A learned response to a classically conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov ’ s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper. Pavlov ’ s Apparatus Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery Before ConditioningBefore Conditioning –Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR) Meat powder leads to salivation –Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery During and After ConditioningDuring and After Conditioning –Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered This procedure is repeated several times –After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food When Bell rings, dog salivates The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR) Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Discovery Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles Acquisition –Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus Extinction –Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus Spontaneous Recovery –Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles The Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US. –Easiest conditioning In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together. In backward pairing, the CS follows the US. –Most difficult Time Temporal Relations in Classical Conditioning Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles Stimulus Generalization –The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus Discrimination –In classical and operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS. –The bell (CS) is paired with a black square. This neutral stimulus becomes a CS. –In the example, the black square elicits salivation. One CS was used to create another CS. Higher-Order Conditioning Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Classical Conditioning Pavlov ’ s Legacy The Conditioning of Little Albert An 11-month old boy – named “ Albert ” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat. –Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert. Albert ’ s fear generalized to anything white and furry. –Including rabbits and a Santa Claus mask Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Learning Operant Conditioning Learning Operant Conditioning Thorndike put cats into puzzle boxes and the time it took for them to escape decreased over the number of attempts. Law of Effect –Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Operant Conditioning – The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement. Reinforcement – Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Punishment – Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response. Shaping – Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Increases Behavior Decreases Behavior Present Stimulus Positive Reinforcement (give money) Positive Punishment (give chores) Remove Stimulus Negative Reinforcement (take away chores) Negative Punishment (take away money) Types of Reinforcement & Punishment Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns. Steeper lines mean higher response rates. Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules. Schedules of Reinforcement Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning Practical Applications All salesclerks were observed for a 20-day baseline period. Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not. The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance. Using Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning Practical Applications Condition Oneself to Break a Bad HabitCondition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit –Identify specific target behavior to change –Record baseline –Formulate a plan To increase a behavior, use reinforcement To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it occurs or remove reinforcements –Implement the plan, revise as needed –Maintain the change Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning New Developments Rats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map Tolman trained rats in this maze, with all alleys open. If “ Block A ” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path. If “ Block B ” in place, rats chose blue path. –Green path is also blocked. Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning New Developments Latent Learning Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so. Some rats found food every time (red line) Some rats never found food (blue line) Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line) Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Operant Conditioning New Developments Hidden Cost of Rewards Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and were observed. Divided into 3 groups: –Given markers again and asked to draw –Promised a reward for playing with markers –Played with markers, then rewarded Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Observational Learning – Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others. Studies of Modeling – Children and others model both antisocial and prosocial behavior. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing

Observational Learning The Process of Modeling Involves: Attention –One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences. Retention –One must recall what was observed. Reproduction –Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the modeled behavior. Motivation –Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act. Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing