© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers 13 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Physical Functioning Primary Aging--senescence –Basic underlying inevitable aging process –Gray hair, changes in visual acuity Secondary Aging –Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults –May interact with social class

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers The Brain and Nervous System Some parts of the brain produce new neurons –Enriched environments seem to help Growth spurts in the brain –Frontal lobe growth from ages 17 – 22 –Response inhibition cortex control of the limbic system from the mid-to late 20s, e.g., impulse control

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers The Brain and Nervous System Gradual loss of speed –Affects every bodily function –Result of gradual changes at neuronal level Loss of dendrites Slowing of the firing rate of nerves

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers The Brain and Nervous System Sex Differences Men have a lower proportion of white matter in the left brain compared with right brain –May produce superior spatial perception Women have equal portions of gray matter in each brain hemisphere –May explain gender differences in emotions Ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Other Body Systems Young adults have better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults. –Stronger –Faster –Better immune systems –Better eyesight –Quicker adaptation

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Other Body Systems Declines in Physical Functioning over the adult years –Losses that appear later in life start in early adulthood. –However, losses may not be discernable for several years –Table 13.2 represents primary aging

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Other Body Systems Heart and Lungs Maximum oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) –Reflects the ability of the body to take in and transport oxygen to body organs –Systematic decline with age –Aerobic exercise can improve VO 2 max at nearly any age

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Physical Functioning Strength and Speed –Longitudinal study of men showed a loss of grip strength over a 9 year period –Strength peaks in the 20’s and early 30’s –However, younger adults are also more active, affecting strength and speed Reproductive Capacity –Women’s reproductive capacity begins to drop in mid-20s –Men’s capacity drops much more slowly

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 13.1 Changes in Grip Strength UPDATE TO COME

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Physical Functioning Immune System Functioning Thymus gland and bone marrow produce B cells and T cells –B cells Produce antibodies to fight off external threats –T cells Defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, and viruses Decline in number and efficiency with age

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Physical Functioning Thymus gland –Central to aging process –Largest in adolescence, then shrinks –Lower functioning leads to less-effective T cells Declines in immune system may be primary aging or may be secondary aging in response to stress or depression.

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Habits and Personal Factors 7 healthy habits initially identified by longitudinal research ( ) –Getting physical exercise –Not smoking –Not drinking –Not over- or undereating –No snacking –Eating breakfast –Getting regular sleep

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Habits and Personal Factors Poorer health habits lead to higher risk of mortality, disease, and disability Additional research links physical exercise and lower risk of death Lower BMI (Body Mass Index: weight to height ratio) numbers in women associated with lower risks of death

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Habits and Personal Factors Social Support Adequate amounts lower risk of disease, death, and depression Effects hold across diverse age groups May boost immune system functioning

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Habits and Personal Factors A Sense of Control: Perceived Control Self-efficacy--belief in one’s ability to perform some action or to control one’s behavior or environment to reach some goal Internal locus of control—attribute cause of many consequences to the self, not external factors Optimism may also boost the immune system Pessimism appears especially problematic over age 45

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) Bacterial STDs Caused by microorganisms that can be eradicated with antibiotics Chlamydia—transmitted through intimate genital contact –Women three times as likely as men to suffer from it but can remain symptom-free –Unfortunately undiagnosed chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Sexually Transmitted Diseases Other bacterial STDs –Gonorrhea Declined in recent years But new strains more resistant to antibiotics Causes long-term damage to reproductive systems –Syphilis Can lead to serious mental disorders and death African American rates remain high

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Sexually Transmitted Diseases Viral STDs: Often can be controlled but considered incurable Genital Herpes –Acquired through intercourse or oral sex –20-30% of adults affected –Periodic attacks Genital Warts –Caused by human papillomavirus –Visible symptoms are warts –New vaccine may be effective

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Sexually Transmitted Diseases HIV/AIDS –Over one million cases in U.S. –Over 30 million cases in sub-Saharan Africa –Transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids –Male homosexual rates remain high Prevention: Behavioral changes –Less risky sexual behavior –Use of condoms

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intimate Partner Abuse Physical or other behavior designed to intimidate or harm an intimate partner or former partner Prevalence 25% of women and 8% of men have been physically abused by a partner 50% of African American women have been abused Hispanic women have higher rates of abuse –Critical factor may be poverty, not race Rates for gay men and lesbian women probably about 25% but may be underreported

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 13.2 Worldwide Rates of Female Physical Abuse

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intimate Partner Abuse Causes Cultural attitudes –Women are regarded as property Gender-role prescriptions –High in Japanese women, based on belief that men are absolute authorities over wives and children Personality traits –Same cluster of traits in heterosexual and homosexual abusers Tendency toward irrational jealousy Control of relationship Sudden mood swings Quick temper –Aggressive men and unemployed men are frequent abusers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intimate Partner Abuse Abuse victims –More likely to have been abused as children –Young women between 16 and 24 more likely to be abused than older women May reflect less ability of young women to act independently of the abuser May be more likely to be caring for young infants May be undereducated Alcohol and drug problems common with abusers and victims.

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intimate Partner Abuse Effects of abuse –Women may develop anxiety, depression, shame, and low self-esteem –Witnessing abuse influences negative developmental outcomes in children Prevention –Vigorous law enforcement of abuse –Temporary shelters –Training programs for victims stressing problem- solving skills to provide opportunities

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intimate Partner Abuse Sexual Violence: episodes of partner abuse in which an individual uses force to coerce another into engaging in sexual acts ¾ of incidents occur in context of some kind of relationship 14-25% of women affected; 3% of men are victims Date rape often premeditated Can cause sexual dysfunctions and post- traumatic stress disorder

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Mental Health Problems Causes Young adulthood high incidence Highest expectations and highest levels of role conflict and role strain may occur then –May lead to anxiety and depression Researchers are focusing on biological causes –Mental illness runs in families –Disturbances in specific brain functions occur Interaction of biology and the environment

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Anxiety and Mood Disorders Anxiety –Phobias – irrational fear of an object, person, place, or situation Learned through association Therapeutic interventions involve unlearning the association –May be “free-floating” Depression –Rates higher in early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age –May result from intimacy issues and loneliness –Can be a recurrent problem

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Personality Disorders Inflexible pattern of behavior that leads to difficulties in social, educational, and occupational functioning May relate to stressful breakups Behaviors start in mid- or late adolescence Can remain problematic throughout life

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Mental Health Problems Schizophrenia Characterized by false beliefs (delusions) and false sensory experiences (hallucinations) –Delusions of grandeur –Delusions of persecution –Auditory hallucinations, such as hearing voices May be helped by antipsychotic medications

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Substance Use and Abuse Alcoholism and drug addiction peak between 18 and 40 Rates are higher for men than women Binge drinking (5+ drinks on one occasion) common among college students Physical and psychological dependence and physical tolerance may occur Increase in risky behaviors

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Changes “Post Formal Thought” Labouvie-Vief, Kohlberg, William Perry Later thinking reflects thinking skills that are more relative and reflect complex thought –Contextual validity – learning how to solve problems associated with social roles and occupations Basseches – dialectical thought –Attempts to describe fundamental process of change and the dynamic relationships through which change occurs –Different kind of thinking than formal operations proposes

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Changes King and Kitchener –Reflective judgment occurs more in early adulthood –Analyze arguments and underlying assumptions Theories on post-formal thought still speculative with little current empirical research

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Intelligence IQ scores –Remain stable across early adulthood –Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that intelligence test scores rise slightly in adulthood before dropping as adults reach age 60 Crystallized Intelligence –Ability to do daily tasks, such as read a newspaper –Depends heavily on education and experience –Remains steady throughout early and middle adulthood Fluid Intelligence –Speed measures of abstract reasoning –Steady decline throughout lifespan

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 13.3 Seattle Data on IQ Scores

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Post-Secondary Education Any kind of formal schooling following high school Developmental Impact –Economic value of completing a degree –Earn more promotions –Less often unemployed –Higher aspirations are inspired during college years –New socialization opportunities arise

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 13.4 U.S. College Completion Rates

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Traditional and Nontraditional Students Traditional –Enroll in school full-time directly after graduation –Now only one-quarter of enrollees –Half obtain a degree within 6 years Non-traditional –May delay entry into college –Independent from parents –Employed full time –Enrolled part time –Have children –Possess a GED rather than a high school diploma

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Traditional and Nontraditional Students Traditional students more often pursue bachelor degrees Non-traditional students more often enroll in two-year colleges –Less often complete degrees than traditional students Non-traditional students tend to have less of a social network on campus, thus Support from the institution is critical for successful management of the conflicting demands of school, family, and work

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Students with Disabilities Post-secondary education now required to serve all people with disabilities Now about 9% of college population College must provide modifications to facilities and special education services –Extra time for tests is most frequent accommodation Receive lower course grades than their peers Perceive college faculty to be inhospitable

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Gender and the College Experience 60% of college students are now female Females also have higher graduation rates –Women study more Women’s entrance exam scores lower than men’s –Allows more men to enter prestigious programs Men party more and may be more influenced by peer pressure and behavior

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Race and the College Experience White or Asian-American students have higher rates of college completion within six years For African- and Hispanic American students –Strong sense of ethnic identity is associated with persistence and academic performance –May help by providing belonging to the college community –Cognitive and social development for African- American students appears higher in historically black colleges than in predominantly white schools

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Questions to Ponder Think of elite athletes. When are they in their prime: gymnastics, swimming, weight-lifting, baseball, football, golf, and tennis? What does this tell us about aging? How aggressively do you protect yourself from an STD? How would you handle a partner that balks at using protection or your use of protection? Are there indications of bias against students with disabilities in your college classrooms?