DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Section 1: Physical Development & Parenting

Developmental Psych: Physical Development & Parenting  The Developmental Psych Approach  Continuous vs. Discontinuous  Stability vs. Change  Stage Theory  (same order for everybody / not necessarily the same age)

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Zygote conception – 2 weeks period of rapid cell division Embryo 2 weeks – 3 months cells attach to mother’s uterine wall & organs develop Fetus 3 months - birth developing human organism

Prenatal Development - TERATOGENS  TERATOGENS: Agents that can reach the developing embryo or fetus and cause harm Alcohol Nicotine Drugs (both prescription drugs & “street” drugs) Viruses (the flu) Toxoplasmosis (contact with cat feces) Food poisoning  Teratogens and Prenatal Development Teratogens and Prenatal Development

Neonate (newborn) REFLEXES  Rooting  Grasping  Startle (Moro Reflex) Sucking & swallowing

INFANT VISION  A baby’s vision improves dramatically during the first 6 months as children become able to accommodate (focus) NEWBORN Babies’ vision is 40x less accurate than adults at seeing fine details 1 MONTH Most of the cells in the visual cortex are not yet coated in myelin. Poor contrast sensitivity & color recognition. 2 MONTHS A newborns rods are fairly mature but their cones are not, making it difficult to decipher fine lines and color. ADULT Between age 6-7 years, a child’s vision reaches adult values 3 MONTHS Dramatic change occurs as the visual cotex begins to control vision better. Vision has caught up to other senses. Depth perception is still not accurate. 6 MONTHS A baby can focus at different distances as well as an adult can. Their ability to see fine details is only 8xworse than ours, 5x better than it was at birth. Babies like to look at complex shapes & faces

IMPRINTING IMPRINTING :  Owen the baby hippo & Mzee, the 130-year-old tortoise the process by which animals form attachments during a limited critical period early in life

IMPRINTING Tink the dachsaund & her piglet “puppy”, Pink.

IMPRINTING: Koko’s Kitten

IMPRINTING: Duck with a DogDuck with a Dog

Newborn Capacities  Habituation: describes infants’ decreasing responsiveness to repeated stimuli. Researchers infer that newborns have cognitive ability to differentiate between different visual stimuli. Habituation:

What’s your earliest memory? Our earliest memories rarely predate our 3 rd birthday. This is called “INFANTILE AMNESIA”. EARLY MEMORY FORMATION Why don’t we remember earlier events? Our brains are still developing Limited language before age 3 – we remember in words

MATURATION : Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior that are relatively unaffected by experience  In terms of brain development, natural maturation causes neural interconnection to multiply rapidly after birth.  However, severe deprivation and abuse will retard development. Furthermore, increased stimulation will cause early neural connections.  Maturation sets the basic course of development; experience adjusts it.

Normal Maturation

Diana BAUMRIND key name Research on parenting styles

AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING STYLES rhymes with “Totalitarian” Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience. Permissive parents submit to their child’s desires, make few demands and use little punishment. PERMISSIVE Authoritative parents encourage open discussion and allow for exceptions when enforcing rules. AUTHORITATIVE “Because I said so.” “ Whatever.” “Let’s talk about it.”

AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING STYLES - consequences rhymes with “Totalitarian” –anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition –poor reactions to frustration –(girls are particularly likely to give up & boys become especially hostile) –do well in school –(studies may show authoritative parenting is comparable) –not likely to engage in social activities

PERMISSIVE PARENTING STYLES - consequences -poor emotion regulation (under regulated) -rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged. -low persistence to challenging tasks -antisocial behaviors

AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING STYLES - consequences -lively and happy disposition -self-confident about ability to master tasks. -well developed emotion regulation -developed social skills

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Section 2: Cognitive Development

Piaget & Cognitive Development SCHEMA A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information AssimilationAccommodation Make new information fit into existing schemas Adjust your schema to fit new information

SCHEMA Assimilation Make new information fit into existing schemas “Heart” = Accommodation Adjusting your schema to fit new information

ASSIMILATION vs. ACCOMMODATION Assimilation When a student downloads music by an artist that is already on the iPod, this can be compared to assimilation (adding a new bit of info to an existing schema). Accommodation When a student downloads music by a new artist, this can be compared to accommodation (creating a new 'folder' is like building a new schema)

GENDER SCHEMA A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information about what it means to be a boy or a girl How do we develop our gender schemas?

Jean PIAGET  Constructed a stage theory of Cognitive Development  Observed that children think differently than adults key name

Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Lack object permanence (until about age 8-10 months)object permanence Sensorimotor Birth – 2 years stage 1 Develop separation anxiety at about 12 months. Stranger anxiety also occurs in this stage.

Preoperational 2 – 6 years Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development EgocentricEgocentric (which does not (in Piagetian thought) mean selfishness, but rather the inability to take another's perspective or even to recognize that others have different perspectives and points of view. ) stage 2 Use of symbols (especially language; difficulty using more than one category)symbols Representational thought Role Playing Animism, or the tendency to attribute psychological properties to inanimate objects.

Animism  Giving animal/human qualities to inanimate objects

Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development By age 7, develop law of conservationlaw of conservation Concrete 6 – 12 years stage 3 Can sort objects into multiple categories (color & size, for example) Children (age 6-12) gain a fuller understanding of conservation and other mental operations that allow them to think logically, but only about concrete events.

Tests of Conservation

Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development The child (12-adult) gains the capacity for hypothetical-deductive (“What if” scenarios) thought  Can engage in hypothetical thought and in systematic deduction and testing of hypotheses Formal 12 years - adult stage 4

 In one scientific thinking task, the child is shown several flasks of what appear to be the same clear liquid and is told one combination of two of these liquids would produce a clear liquid. The task is to determine which combination would produce the blue liquid  The concrete operational child just starts mixing different clear liquids together haphazardly  The formal operational child develops a systematic plan for deducing what the correct combination must be by determining all of the possible combinations and then systematically testing each one Formal 12 years - adult

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory  Recent research has shown that rudiments of many of Piaget’s key concepts (e.g., object permanence) may begin to appear at earlier stages than Piaget proposed  For example, research that involved tracking infants’ eye movements has found that infants as young as 3 months continue to stare at the place where the object disappeared from sight, indicating some degree of object permanence

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 1. Not all people reach formal operational thought 2. The theory may be biased in favor of Western culture 3. There is no real theory of what occurs after the onset of adolescence 4. Despite refinements, recent research has indeed shown that cognitive development seems to proceed in the general sequence of stages that Piaget proposed

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Section 3: Attachment, moral reasoning & death

Continuity vs. Discontinuity  Development is gradual/cumulative from conception to death  Quantitative change  Height and weight change  Vygotsky  Development happens in distinct stages  Qualitative change  Resolve conflicts or develop different abilities in stages that build on one another  Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson ContinuityDiscontinuity

Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development  Contrasts with Piaget who emphasized maturation (nature) and development in stages (discontinuity)  Vygotsky emphasized the role of the environment (nurture) and gradual growth (continuity)

Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development  Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of an adult.  working closely with an instructor, a child works close to the upper limit of his capabilities.  The child eventually will be able to work at that high level independently.  Once the goal (upper limit) is achieved, it becomes the new lower limit of that child’s ZPD.

Harry HARLOW  Conducted a study of attachment in monkeys. ( ).  Monkeys preferred the comfort of a cloth surrogate "mother" over that of a wire one – proving that attachment is about more than just supplying food. key name

Baby Monkeys Raised In Isolation  Overly aggressive or;  Overly fearful  Incapable of mating when older

Mary AINSWORTH  Conducted the “Strange Situation Test” of Attachment (1960s).  Results showed that securely attached children: will explore freely while the mother is present will engage with strangers will be visibly upset when the mother departs will be happy to see the mother return will not engage with stranger if mother is not in room The Strange Situation Experiment key name

Ainsworth’s attachment styles  Insecure-avoidant – not distressed at mother leaving or stranger arriving; cool response when mother returns  Probably caused by distant mothers

Ainsworth’s attachment styles  insecure- resistant – clingy to mother; traumatized by every stage of the experiment; distrustful of their mothers  Caused by over-bearing, controlling mothers

Erik ERIKSON  Constructed a stage theory of Psychosocial Development key name

THE MAJOR EVENT IS FEEDING The infant will develop a sense of trust only if the parent or caregiver is responsive and consistent with the basic needs being met. The need for care and food must be met with comforting regularity. The infant must first form a trusting relationship with the parent or caregiver; otherwise a sense of mistrust will develop. Trust vs. Mistrust STAGE 1: (Birth - 18 months)

THE MAJOR EVENT IS TOILET TRAINING (AND FEEDING AND DRESSING THEMSELVES) Toilet training as well as feeding and dressing themselves is how the toddler strives for autonomy. It is essential for parents not to be overprotective at this stage. A parent's level of protectiveness will influence the child's ability to achieve autonomy. If a parent is not reinforcing, the child will feel shameful and will learn to doubt his or her abilities. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt STAGE 2: ( 18 months – 3 years)

THE MAJOR EVENT AT THIS STAGE IS INDEPENDENCE. The child continues to be assertive and to take the initiative. Children in this stage are eager for responsibility. It is essential for adults to confirm that the child's initiative is accepted no matter how small it may be. If the child is not given a chance to be responsible and do things on their own, a sense of guilt may develop. The child will come to believe that what they want to do is always wrong. INDEPENDENCE Initiative vs. Guilt STAGE 3: (3 – 6 years)

THE MAJOR EVENT AT THIS STAGE IS ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL As a student, the children have a need to be productive and do work on their own. They are both physically and mentally ready for it. Interaction with peers at school also plays an imperative role of child development in this stage. The child for the first time has a wide variety of events to deal with, including academics, group activities, and friends. Difficulty with any of these leads to a sense of inferiority. Competence (Industry) vs. Inferiority STAGE 4: (6- 12 years)

The major event at this stage is ESTABLISHING PEER RELATIONSHIPS At this stage, adolescents are in search of an identity that will lead them to adulthood. Adolescents make a strong effort to answer the question "Who am I?" Erikson notes the healthy resolution of earlier conflicts can now serve as a foundation for the search for an identity. If the child overcomes earlier conflicts they are prepared to search for identity. Who am I?" Identity vs. Role Confusion STAGE 5: (12 – 18 years)

In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. Intimacy refers to one's ability to relate to another human being on a deep, personal level. An individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation. Intimacy vs. Isolation STAGE 6: (19 – 40 years)

In this stage, the most important EVENT IS PARENTING. In this stage generativity refers to the adult's ability to care for another person. Generativity has a broader meaning then just having children. Each adult must have some way to satisfy and support the next generation. Generativity vs. Stagnation STAGE 7: (40 – 65 years)

IN THIS STAGE, THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT IS ACCEPTANCE OF ONE’S LIFE. According to Erikson, achieving a sense of integrity means fully accepting oneself and coming to terms with the death. Accepting responsibility for your life and being able to undo the past and achieve satisfaction with self is essential. The inability to do this results in a feeling of despair. Ego Integrity vs. Despair STAGE 8: (65 years - death)

Failure to resolve a developmental challenge results in conflict throughout adulthood. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Lawrence KOHLBERG  Constructed a stage theory of Moral Development  Said that we make moral decisions based on an “ethic of justice” key name

Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development Approximate Age RangeStageSubstages 4-10Preconventional1) Avoid punishment 2) Gain Reward Age 10 to 13Conventional3) Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval from others 4) Duty & Guilt (law & order) Age 13+ maybe neverPostconventional5) Agreed upon rights 6) Personal moral standards Ethic of JUSTICE

Elisabeth KUBLER-ROSS  Identified the 5 Stages of Grief: Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance (Scrubs) (Simpsons)ScrubsSimpsons key name

Research Designs for Developmental Psychology  To assess change over time the following methods are used:  Experiments  Naturalistic Observation  Correlational Studies  Case Studies

Longitudinal Studies  Looks at same group for an extended period of time to note changes in individuals  Months to several years  Cons:  Expensive to conduct  Long time to collect data  Loss of participants over time (results may not be generalized)  Lewis Terman studied a group of highly intelligent children to look at intellectual changes

Cross-Sectional Studies  Looks at different age groups at the same time  Pros:  Cost less  Produce results quickly  Do not loose participants  Con:  Cofounding variable such as Cohort Effect (differences in experiences due to growing up in different eras)  Example: Math skills…older generations didn’t have access/exposure to technology (calculators)

Cohort-Sequential Studies  Cross-sectional groups are assessed at least twice over a span of months/years as opposed to just once  Results from one cohort is compared to another cohort of the same age range to look at similarities…any differences would be a result of the cohort effect  Helps separate actual age-related changes from cohort effects  Share same cons as longitudinal studies but in less extremes

Retrospective/Biographical Studies  Case studies of one person at a time  Uses self-reports and interviews  Researcher assesses individuals at an older age and then reconstructs changes that have occurred in the subject’s life  Pro:  Detailed  Cons:  Not always accurate due to loss of memories  Generalization may be difficult

Elements of Gender  Gender: the sociocultural dimension of being biologically male or female  Gender roles: Expectations for each gender one how they should think, act, and feel  Gender identity: Our sense of being male or female, usually linked to physiology and anatomy

Perspectives Regarding Gender  Biological Perspective:  Differences between sexes is due to genetics  Males: 44 chromosomes plus sex chromosomes X & Y  More muscular, taller, and aggressive due to hormones  Females: 44 chromosomes plus sex chromosomes X & X  Bigger corpus callosum; influences lateralization in the brain

Evolutionary Perspective  Behavioral tendencies are due to our evolutionary desires to survive and reproduce  Males: Risk-takers, show dominance, and achieve high status  Females: More concerned with appearance in order to attract high-status, protective males

Psychoanalytic Perspective  Freud’s idea that girls learn to be feminine from their mothers and boys learn to be masculine from their fathers  Identification comes from resolving complexes around age 5  Males: Oedipal  Females: Electra

Behavioral Perspective  Through the social learning theory, children respond to rewards and punishments for their behavior  Observation and imitation of parents allows them to acquire their gender identity

Cognitive Perspective  Sandra Bem introduced the gender schema theory to explain appropriate perceptions of males vs. females roles  Gender role stereotypes (broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs for each gender) give males and females specific traits:  Males: self-reliance & leadership abilities  Females: Expressive traits such as warmth and understanding

Additional Terms  Temperament  Self-awareness  Social referencing  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)  Meta-analysis  Stereotype threat

You should have covered the following in your Developmental Tasks…if not, make sure you know them:  Primary sex characteristics  Secondary sex characteristics  Menarche  Menopause  Fluid and crystallized intelligence  Alzheimer’s disease  Mid-life crisis