5: DataLink Layer5-1 Chapter 5: The Data Link Layer Our goals: r Understand principles behind data link layer services: m error detection, error correction m sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access m link layer addressing r instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies m Ethernet m Wireless LAN

Link Layer5-2 Link layer, LANs: outline 5.1 introduction, services 5.2 error detection, correction 5.3 multiple access protocols 5.4 LANs  addressing, ARP  Ethernet  switches  VLANS 5.5 link virtualization: MPLS 5.6 data center networking 5.7 a day in the life of a web request

Link Layer5-3 Link layer: introduction terminology: r hosts and routers: nodes r communication channels that connect adjacent nodes along communication path: links m wired links m wireless links m LANs r layer-2 packet: frame, encapsulates datagram data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to physically adjacent node over a link global ISP

5: DataLink Layer5-4 Link Layer Services r Framing, link access: m encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer m channel access if shared medium m “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify source, dest different from IP address! Hardware device address r Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes m we learned how to do this already (TCP)! m seldom used on low bit error link (fiber, some twisted pair) m Used in high error rates links: wireless links Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

5: DataLink Layer5-5 Link Layer Services (more) r Flow Control: m pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes r Error Detection: m errors caused by signal attenuation, noise. m receiver detects presence of errors: signals sender for retransmission or drops frame r Error Correction: m receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission r Half-duplex and full-duplex m with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not at same time

Link Layer5-6 Where is the link layer implemented? r in each and every host r link layer implemented in “adaptor” (aka network interface card NIC) or on a chip m Ethernet card, card; Ethernet chipset m implements link, physical layer r attaches into host’s system buses r combination of hardware, software, firmware controller physical transmission cpu memory host bus (e.g., PCI) network adapter card application transport network link physical

Link Layer5-7 Adaptors communicating  sending side:  encapsulates datagram in frame  adds error checking bits, rdt, flow control, etc.  receiving side  looks for errors, rdt, flow control, etc  extracts datagram, passes to upper layer at receiving side controller sending host receiving host datagram frame

Link Layer5-8 Link layer, LANs: outline 5.1 introduction, services 5.2 error detection, correction 5.3 multiple access protocols 5.4 LANs  addressing, ARP  Ethernet  switches  VLANS 5.5 link virtualization: MPLS 5.6 data center networking 5.7 a day in the life of a web request

5: DataLink Layer5-9 Error Detection EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy) D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields Error detection not 100% reliable! protocol may miss some errors, but rarely larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

5: DataLink Layer5-10 Parity Checking Single Bit Parity: Detect single bit errors Two Dimensional Bit Parity: Detect and correct single bit errors 0 0 Even parity theme Odd parity theme Forward Error Correction (FEC)

5: DataLink Layer5-11 Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) r view data bits, D, as a binary number (d bits) r choose r+1 bit pattern (generator, divisor), G r goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that m exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) m receiver knows G, divides by G. If non-zero remainder: error detected! m can detect all burst errors (consecutive bit error) less than r+1 bits r widely used in practice (Ethernet, WiFi, ATM) Why? Codeword D+R bits

5: DataLink Layer5-12 CRC Example Want: D. 2 r XOR R = nG equivalently: D. 2 r = nG XOR R equivalently: if we divide D. 2 r by G, want remainder R R = remainder[ ] D.2rGD.2rG

Data: 1000 Divisor: 1011 What is the codeword?

Data: 1010 Divisor: What is the codeword?

Link Layer5-15 Link layer, LANs: outline 5.1 introduction, services 5.2 error detection, correction 5.3 multiple access protocols 5.4 LANs  addressing, ARP  Ethernet  switches  VLANS 5.5 link virtualization: MPLS 5.6 data center networking 5.7 a day in the life of a web request

Link Layer5-16 Multiple access links, protocols two types of “links”: r point-to-point m PPP for dial-up access m point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host r broadcast (shared wire or medium) m old-fashioned Ethernet m upstream HFC (cable modem) m wireless LAN shared wire (e.g., cabled Ethernet) shared RF (e.g., WiFi) shared RF (satellite) humans at a cocktail party (shared air, acoustical)

5: DataLink Layer5-17 Multiple Access protocols r single shared broadcast channel r two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference m collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time multiple access protocol r distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit r communication about channel sharing must use channel itself! m no out-of-band channel for coordination

5: DataLink Layer5-18 Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol Broadcast channel of rate R bps 1. When one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R. 2. When M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate R/M 3. Fully decentralized: m no special node to coordinate transmissions m no synchronization of clocks, slots 4. Simple Not possible (no waste in collision)

5: DataLink Layer5-19 MAC Protocols: a taxonomy Three broad classes: r Channel Partitioning m divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code) m allocate piece to node for exclusive use r Random Access m channel not divided, allow collisions m “recover” from collisions r “Taking turns” m Nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer turns

5: DataLink Layer5-20 Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA TDMA: time division multiple access r access to channel in "rounds" r each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round r unused slots go idle (like circuit switching) r example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle r TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots, one per user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load. r FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided slot frame 6-slot frame

5: DataLink Layer5-21 Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA FDMA: frequency division multiple access r channel spectrum divided into frequency bands r each station assigned fixed frequency band r unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle r example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle r TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots, one per user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load. r FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided. frequency bands time FDM cable

5: DataLink Layer5-22 Random Access Protocols r When node has packet to send m transmit at full channel data rate R. m no a priori coordination among nodes  two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision” r random access MAC protocol specifies: m how to detect collisions m how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions) r Examples of random access MAC protocols: m slotted ALOHA m ALOHA m CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

5: DataLink Layer5-23 Slotted ALOHA Assumptions r all frames same size r time is divided into equal size slots, time to transmit 1 frame r nodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slots r nodes are synchronized r if 2 or more nodes transmit in slot, all nodes detect collision Operation r when node obtains fresh frame, it transmits in next slot r no collision, node can send new frame in next slot r if collision, node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob. p until success

Link Layer5-24 Pros: r single active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channel r highly decentralized: only slots in nodes need to be in sync r simple Cons:  collisions, wasting slots  idle slots  nodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packet  clock synchronization Slotted ALOHA node 1 node 2 node 3 C CCSS SE EE

Link Layer5-25 r suppose: N nodes with many frames to send, each transmits in slot with probability p r prob that given node has success in a slot = p(1-p) N-1 r prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p) N-1 r max efficiency: find p* that maximizes Np(1-p) N-1 r for many nodes, take limit of Np*(1-p*) N-1 as N goes to infinity, gives: max efficiency = 1/e =.37 efficiency : long-run fraction of successful slots (many nodes, all with many frames to send) at best: channel used for useful transmissions 37% of time! ! Slotted ALOHA: efficiency

5: DataLink Layer5-26 Pure (unslotted) ALOHA r unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization r when frame first arrives m transmit immediately r collision probability increases: m frame sent at t 0 collides with other frames sent in [t 0 -1,t 0 +1]

5: DataLink Layer5-27 Pure Aloha efficiency P(success by given node) = P(node transmits). P(no other node transmits in [t 0 -1,t 0 ]). P(no other node transmits in [t 0,t 0 +1] ) = p. (1-p) N-1. (1-p) N-1 = p. (1-p) 2(N-1) … choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infty... = 1/(2e) =.18 Even worse !

5: DataLink Layer5-28 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) CSMA: listen before transmit: r If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame r If channel sensed busy, defer transmission r Human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

Link Layer5-29 CSMA collisions r collisions can still occur: propagation delay means two nodes may not hear each other’s transmission r collision: entire packet transmission time wasted m distance & propagation delay play role in in determining collision probability spatial layout of nodes

Link Layer5-30 CSMA/CD (collision detection) CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA  collisions detected within short time  colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage  collision detection:  easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted, received signals  difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength overwhelmed by local transmission strength  human analogy: the polite conversationalist

Link Layer5-31 CSMA/CD (collision detection) spatial layout of nodes

5: DataLink Layer5-32 CSMA/CD collision detection Without CD With CD

Link Layer5-33 Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm 1. NIC receives datagram from network layer, creates frame 2. If NIC senses channel idle, starts frame transmission. If NIC senses channel busy, waits until channel idle, then transmits. 3. If NIC transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, NIC is done with frame ! 4. If NIC detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal 5. After aborting, NIC enters binary (exponential) backoff: m after mth collision, NIC chooses K at random from {0,1,2, …, 2 m -1}. NIC waits K·512 bit times, returns to Step 2 m longer backoff interval with more collisions

Link Layer5-34 CSMA/CD efficiency r T prop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN r t trans = time to transmit max-size frame r efficiency goes to 1 m as t prop goes to 0 m as t trans goes to infinity r better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized !

5: DataLink Layer5-35 “Taking Turns” MAC protocols channel partitioning MAC protocols: m share channel efficiently and fairly at high load m inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node! Random access MAC protocols m efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel m high load: large collision overhead “taking turns” protocols look for best of both worlds!

5: DataLink Layer5-36 “Taking Turns” MAC protocols Polling: r master node “invites” slave nodes to transmit in turn r concerns: m polling overhead m latency m single point of failure (master) Token passing: r control token passed from one node to next sequentially. r token message r concerns: m token overhead m latency m single point of failure (token)

5: DataLink Layer5-37 Summary of MAC protocols r What do you do with a shared media? m Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code Time Division, Frequency Division m Random partitioning (dynamic), ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in others (wireless) CSMA/CD used in Ethernet CSMA/CA used in m Taking Turns polling from a central site, token passing