1 Structure of Compilers Lexical Analyzer (scanner) Modified Source Program Parser Tokens Semantic Analysis Syntactic Structure Optimizer Code Generator Intermediate Representation Target machine code Symbol Table

2 Binding Binding - association of an operation and a symbol. Binding time - when does the association take place? –Design time –Compile time –Link time –Runtime

3 Binding time Example: int count; count = count + 5; Type of count is bound at compile time. Value of count bound at execution time. Meaning of + bound at compile time. Possible types for count, internal representation of 5 and set of possible meanings for + bound at compiler design time.

4 Binding Static –It occurs before runtime and remains unchanged throughout program execution. Dynamic –It occurs at runtime and can change in the course of program execution.

5 Type Binding Before a variable can be referenced in a program, it must be bound to a data type. Two important questions to ask: 1. How is the type specified? Explicit Declaration Implicit Declaration –All variable names that start with the letters ‘i’ - ‘r’ are integer, real otherwise is an array, %something is a hash structure Determined by context and value

6 Type Binding 2. When does the binding take place –Explicit declaration (static) –Implicit declaration (static) –Determined by context and value (dynamic) Dynamic Type Binding –When a variable gets a value, the type of the variable is determined right there and then.

7 Dynamic Type Binding Specified through an assignment statement (set x ‘(1 2 3)) <== x becomes a list (set x ‘a) <== x becomes an atom Advantage: –flexibility (generic program units) Disadvantages: 1. High cost (dynamic type checking and interpretation) 2. Type error detection by the compiler is difficult

8 Type Inference Rather than by assignment statement, types are determined from the context of the reference. –Some languages don’t support assignment statements Example: (define someFunction (m n).... ) (someFunction ‘a ‘b) <== m becomes an atom (someFunction ‘(a b c) ‘(1 2 3)) <= m becomes a list

9 Storage Bindings Allocation –getting a cell from some pool of available cells Deallocation –putting a cell back into the pool The lifetime of a variable is the time during which it is bound to a particular memory cell.

10 Variable lifetime Static –bound to memory cells before execution begins and remains bound to the same memory cell throughout execution. –C’s static variables Advantage: –efficiency (direct addressing), –history-sensitive subprogram support Disadvantage: –lack of flexibility (no recursion)

11 Variable lifetime Stack-dynamic –Storage bindings are created for variables when their declaration statements are elaborated. –If scalar, all attributes except address are statically bound. –e.g. local variables in Pascal and C subprograms Advantage: –allows recursion; conserves storage Disadvantages: –Overhead of allocation and deallocation –Subprograms cannot be history sensitive

12 Variable Lifetime Explicit heap-dynamic –Allocated and deallocated by explicit directives, specified by the programmer, which take effect during execution. –Referenced only through pointers or references –e.g. dynamic objects in C++ (via new and delete) –all objects in Java Advantage: –provides for dynamic storage management Disadvantage: –inefficient and unreliable

13 Variable lifetime Implicit heap-dynamic –Allocation and deallocation caused by assignment statements –e.g. Lisp variables Advantage: –flexibility Disadvantages: –Inefficient, because all attributes are dynamic –Loss of error detection

14 - Type Checking Generalize the concept of operands and operators to include subprograms and assignments Type checking is the activity of ensuring that the operands of an operator are of compatible types A compatible type is one that is either legal for the operator, or is allowed under language rules to be implicitly converted, by compiler-generated code, to a legal type. This automatic conversion is called a coercion.

15 Type Checking A type error is the application of an operator to an operand of an inappropriate type. If all type bindings are static, nearly all type checking can be static If type bindings are dynamic, type checking must be dynamic A programming language is strongly typed if type errors are always detected.

16 Type Checking Advantage of strong typing: –Allows the detection of the misuses of variables that result in type errors. Languages: –1. FORTRAN 77 is not: parameters, EQUIVALENCE –2. Pascal is not: variant records –3. Modula-2 is not: variant records, WORD type –4. C and C++ are not: parameter type checking can be avoided; unions are not type checked. –5. Ada is, almost (UNCHECKED CONVERSION is loophole) (Java is similar) Coercion rules strongly affect strong typing –they can weaken it considerably (C++ versus Ada)

17 Name Type Compatibility Type compatibility by name means the two variables have compatible types if they are in either the same declaration or in declarations that use the same type name –Easy to implement but highly restrictive: Subranges of integer types are not compatible with integer types Formal parameters must be the same type as their corresponding actual parameters

18 Name Type Compatibility type indextype = ; //subrange var count : integer; index : indextype; Is count and index name type compatible?

19 Structure Type Compatibility Type compatibility by structure means that two variables have compatible types if their types have identical structures –More flexible, but harder to implement type myType1 = double; type myType2 = double; myType1 data1; myType2 data2; data1 = data2; //????

20 Type Compatibility type type1 = arary [1..10] of integer; type2 = array [1..10] of integer; type3 = type2; type2 is compatible with type3 by name type1 is compatible with type2 by structure

21 Type Compatibility Anonymous types A: array [1..10] of INTEGER; B: array [1..10] of INTEGER; C, D: array [1..10] of INTEGER;

22 Scope The scope of a variable is the range of statements over which it is visible. The nonlocal variables of a program unit are those that are visible but not declared there. The scope rules of a language determine how references to names are associated with variables.

23 Static scope Based on program text –To connect a name reference to a variable, you (or the compiler) must find the declaration. Search process: –search declarations, first locally, then in increasingly larger enclosing scopes, until one is found for the given name. Enclosing static scopes (to a specific scope) are called its static ancestors; the nearest static ancestor is called a static parent.

24 Static Scope Blocks - a method of creating static scopes inside program units--from ALGOL 60 C and C++: for (...) { int index;... } Ada: declare LCL : FLOAT; begin... end

25 Evaluation of Static Scoping (for nested procedures) Consider the example: MAIN Define Sub A Define Sub C Define Sub D Call Sub C Define Sub B Define Sub E Call Sub E Call Sub A Static Scope: Procedures MAIN A B C D E

26 Static Scope: Variables program main; var x: integer; procedure sub1; begin print(x); end; {sub1} procedure sub2; var x: integer; begin x := 10; sub1; end; begin x := 5; sub2 end. Output 10 or 5?

27 Static Scope Suppose the spec is changed so that D must now access some data in B Solutions: 1. Put D in B (but then C can no longer call it and D cannot access A's variables) 2. Move the data from B that D needs to MAIN (but then all procedures can access them) Same problem for procedure access! Overall: static scoping often encourages many globals

28 Dynamic Scope Based on calling sequences of program units, not their textual layout (temporal versus spatial) References to variables are connected to declarations by searching back through the chain of subprogram calls that forced execution to this point. Evaluation of Dynamic Scoping: –Advantage: convenience –Disadvantage: hard to debug, hard to understand the code

29 Dynamic Scope: Variables program main; var x: integer; procedure sub1; begin print(x); end; {sub1} procedure sub2; var x: integer; begin x := 10; sub1; end; begin x := 5; sub2 end. Output 10 or 5?

30 Scope vs. Lifetime Scope and lifetime are sometimes closely related, but are different concepts!! Consider a static variable in a C or C++ function void someFunction() { static int x;... }

Intermediate Representation Almost no compiler produces code without first converting a program into some intermediate representation that is used just inside the compiler. This intermediate representation is called by various names: –Internal Representation –Intermediate representation –Intermediate language

Intermediate Representation Intermediate Representations are also called by the form the intermediate language takes: –tuples –abstract syntax trees –Triples –Simplied language

Intermediate Form In general, an intermediate form is kept around only until the compiler generates code; then it cane be discarded. Another difference in compilers is how much of the program is kept in intermediate form; this is related to the question of how much of the program the compiler looks at before it starts to generate code. There is a wide spectrum of choices.

34 Abstract Syntax Tree x = y + 3; = x+ y 3

35 Quadruples y= a*(x+b)/(x-c); T1= x+b;(+, 3, 4, 5) T2=a*T1; (*, 2, 5, 6) T3=x-c;(-, 3, 7, 8) T4=T2/T3;(/, 6, 8, 9) y=T4;(=, 0, 9, 1) y a x b T1 T2 c T3 T4