Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.1 Charges of unlike sign attact each other, those of like sign repel.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.2 The architecture of the dipolar water molecule. The red and blue surface regions are charged positively and negatively respectively.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.3 The field created by a positive charge is directed away from the charge in all three-dimensional directions, the converse being true for negative charges.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.4 In a spherically symmetrical geometry, all properties are uniform on spheres such as r = R. Here a charge Q resides at the r = 0 origin.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.5 The test charge experiences a repulsive force of magnitude Q test q/2ε from the positively charged sheet, independent of l, and an attractive force of the same magnitude from the negatively charged sheet.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.6 A test charge moves a short distance δr from point A to point B towards the source of an electric field. It experiences a field of strength X acting in the direction of increasing r.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.7 A test charge journeying by the direct A → B route encounters a field that is constantly changing in both strength and direction. However, the work involved is the same as via the route A → C → B. No work accompanies the A → C journey along the circular arc.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.8 Parallel plates store electric charge, and retain the charge when the switch is opened.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.9 Measurable potential differences exist within the dielectric and between the metal phases, but not between points in dissimilar phases.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.10 In an electric field, dipoles become aligned, to some extent, so that the dipole field opposes the field applied by the plates.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.11 Arrangement for measuring the conductivity of an electronic conductor. The method is sometimes called the 4-terminal method because there are four connections to the conductor. The sample of conductor is of length L and cross-sectional area A.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.12 In the absence of chemical reaction, current flows transiently when a field is applied to an ionic conductor.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.13 How the charge passed varies with time following the imposition of an electric field on three classes of material. For the insulator, a charge of magnitude AεΔE/L passes almost immediately. For the electronic conductor, the charge passed increases linearly as AκtΔE/L. For the ionic conductor, the charge accumulates at an ever-decreasing rate.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.14 In the absence of chemical reaction, ions move and accumulate at the interfaces when a field is applied to an ionic conductor.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.15 Positive charge carriers move in response to a field, leading to the flow of current I.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.16 Cations, moving to the right with the field, and anions, moving leftwards against the field, both contribute to the current.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.17 Circuits to evaluate the effect of a voltage step on a resistor and a capacitor in parallel (left) and series (right). In the parallel case, ΔE C and ΔE R are identical; when the components are in series, the same current I flows through R and C.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.18 How the current changes following the imposition of a constant voltage on a series arrangement of a resistor and a capacitor.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.19 Waveforms of the domestic electricity supply: the green and violet curves respectively illustrate 120 V, 60 Hz and 240 V, 50 Hz supplies.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.20 An a.c. circuit for measuring the impedance of five alternative loads.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.21 A typical Fourier spectrum. In this example, harmonics are present at frequencies of 3ω, 5ω, 7ω, …, in addition to the fundamental of frequency ω. Here, ω = 2π/P.

Electrochemical Science and Technology: Fundamentals and Applications, Keith B. Oldham, Jan C. Myland and Alan M. Bond. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Figure 1.22 A square wave of amplitude |E|, period P and frequency 2π/P.