VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS

IRON TOOLS AND AGRICULTURE Iron use began around 3000 years ago. Three major inventions which helped improve agriculture:- Axes – for clearing forests Iron ploughshare New irrigational methods – canals, wells, tanks and artificial lakes

WHO LIVED IN THE VILLAGES? SOUTHERN INDIA NORTHERN INDIA Vellalar Grama bhojaka Uzhavar Grihapati Kadaisiyar/adimai Dasa karmakara Vellalar and gramabhojaka were large landowners. They also used to collect taxes and helped to maintain law and order. Uzhavar and Grihapati were ordinary ploughmen. They were independent and small land owners. Kadaisiyar/adimai and dasakarmakara were landless labourers including slaves who earned their livin working on other’s fields.

EARLY LITERATURE Sangam literature in Tamil were composed 2300 years ago. They were composed and compiled in assemblies of poets that were held in Madurai. Jatakas were probably composed by ordinary people and preserved by Buddhist monks. They tell stories about common man and his life.

EVIDENCES FOR EARLY CITIES Sculptures used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings. Cities which were capitals of mahajanapadas, which had massive fortification walls. Ring wells, used as toilets, drains and garbage dumps. Palaces, markets and homes of ordinary people. Accounts of sailors and travellers who visited.

CITIES WITH MANY FUNCTIONS - MATHURA Located at crossroads of two major routes of travel and trade. There were fortifications around the city and several religious shrines like Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines and Krishna shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining cities provided food to cities. Centre of extremely fine sculptures. Around 2000 years ago, it became the second capital of Kushanas.

CRAFTS AND CRAFTS PERSONS The Northern Black Polished Ware: Got the name of the place where it was found (northern part of the subcontinent ) Black in colour Has a fine sheen. Cloth The manufacture of cloth was important Famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south Both men and women worked in these centres 7

SHRENIS Association of crafts persons and merchants known as shrenis. 8

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ARIKAMEDU

A warehouse made of brick was found. A coastal settlement between 2200 and 1900 years ago where ships unloaded goods. A warehouse made of brick was found. Pottery like amphorae and Arretine ware originating from the Mediterranean region found. Amphorae: tall double handled jars containing wine or oil. Arretine ware: stamped red glazed pottery made by pressing wet clay into stamped mould. 13

ARIKAMEDU Small tanks used as dyeing vats used to dye clothes found. Evidence of the making of beads and semi-precious stones and glass Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.