Learning in Science

Vygotsky (Constructivist) Learning stems from experience Involves language (and discussion) Clarifies thinking Requires processing Within a social and cultural context Within Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Is contextually-based Howe, 1996 Emphasis on language includes “inner speech” (p41) Nonconscious understanding may precede ability to express it in language (p41) For Vygotsky – driving force is external (social) – Piaget it is internal Contextually-based – relates to the degree to which new K can link to prior, articulated K

Vygotsky (Constructivist) People learn Everyday concepts (spontaneous) “Scientific” concepts (non-spontaneous) Concepts Are constructed Linked concepts transfer to new experiences Howe, 1996 “Scientific concepts” – including social sciences, language, math, & natural science – involving systematic hierarchical knowledge (p.37) Everyday concepts linked to particular instances and not coherent (p.38) “Scaffolding” supports students social learning

Prior Knowledge

Piaget (Constructivist) Learning is active, constructive process Learning derived from experience New Knowledge Assimilated Accommodated Learning is individual and internally driven Developmental stages in learning Linked to physical development Limit learning Howe, 1996

Prior Knowledge I’d like the duck, but I have a plane to catch. I was brought into a large white room and my eyes began to blink because the bright light hurt them.

Prior Knowledge

Prior Knowledge Which does not belong in this group? Salamander Jellyfish Tree Fish Jesse Ventura

Constructivism Characteristics of Knowledge Builds on Prior Knowledge Derived from reality Is adaptive, useful Is rational “Created” by individuals Socially constructed Shapiro, 1994

Constructivism Types of Knowledge Rote (“situated” ) Fuzzy Conceptions (Alternative conceptions) Meaningful Cognitive network: Schema Illustrated through concept maps “Misconceptions” Novak, 2002 Rote learning “is arbitrarily and non-substantively incorporated into cognitive structure.” (p549), may result in inability to transfer K “Meaningful learning” – involves conscious effort by learner to integrate K (p.549)

Prior Knowledge Pyrrhuloxia Animal Oxygen Bird Food Fish Reproduce Trout Needs Can May be a Pyrrhuloxia

Misconceptions Examples: Leaf color Seasons Condensation

Misconceptions Constructed from experience, “prior knowledge” Rational (make sense) Useful Common and typical Stable and resistant to change

Conceptual Change Assess prior knowledge Clarify prior knowledge Create dissatisfaction with current concepts Discovery process New concept is understood New concept is believable New concept is useful Continued experience with new concept “Living” - Venville “Animal” “Plant food” Winter season and solar distance Strike & Posner, 1982

Constructivist terminology Proposition – A statement identifying the relationship between concepts Consider: Flowers have pistils. Flowers are part of plants. Dogs have legs. Water flows down hill.

Constructivism Concepts – regularities in events or objects Consider: Chair Dog Running Blue Sunny Novak, 2002 “The meaning of concepts derives from the totality of propositions linked to any given concept, plus emotional connotations associated with these concepts, derivative in part from the experiences, and context of learning during which the concepts were acquired.” (p551)

Concept Maps

Relevance Learning Motivated by relevance Affected by Unobservables To learner’s world. To prior knowledge To relationships (socially valued knowledge) Affected by Unobservables Sensory perceptions (taste, smell) Prior ideas, knowledge, models Schollum & Osborne, 1985 Children view from self-centered or human-centered point of view. (p55) Children accept multiple explanations (and they don’t have to be scientific or coherent). (p56) Prior K includes: Ideas uninfluenced ideas (boiling water has bubbles of air – instead of bubbles of gaseous water) Unanticiapted ways – using prior K to conclude evaporation turns water into hydrogen and oxygen Models – mental model of matter as continuous (no spaces between atoms) Importance of readiness and linking to relevance

Language in the classroom Teacher’s words may be ignored if unfamiliar Teacher’s words may be used without understanding (sounding scientific) Student’s words may be ignored. May involve unidentified mismatch between student and teacher. (examples: living, animal) May be identified mismatch. Bell & Freyberg,, 1985 Language in the science classroom – To improve situation – be aware, have students clarify their own understanding, then be deliberate in presenting terms.

Instructional Mismatches Intention for activity Context - conceptual Purpose – goal of activity Design – relevant variables Activity goals Action may be without skills or direction Get results Reflection – considering findings Tasker & Freyberg, 1985 Strategies: Have student groups read instructions to ensure understanding Scramble and cut up instructions to see if students can recreate sequence Short sentences, key words, repetition Compare and discuss group results Assess on multiple levels (interpretive, cognitive, manipulative, social, workshop skills) Use checklists

Pollution misconceptions Brody – Misconceptions Anything natural is not pollution Biodegradable materials are not pollutants. Things are either pollutants or not pollutants. The human race is indestructible as a species. Solid waste in dumps is safe. Brody, 1987 Worked with 4th, 8th, and 11th grade students and inteviews (n=105) in 11 maine schools.

Objectivism Different in world-view and philosophy Knowledge is waiting to be discovered (or taught) Systematic, objective observations lead to knowledge (the inductive process) Learning is a process to obtain “true” knowledge Shapiro, 1994

Knowledge Conceptions Rote Knowledge Fuzzy Conceptions (Alternative conceptions) Misconceptions

Knowledge Vee The Knowledge Vee – demonstrates process of constructing/analyzing knowledge Conceptual components Principles – relationships among concepts explaining how concepts appear/behave. Theories – explain why concepts appear/behave the way they do World View – belief and knowledge system motivating and guiding learning Novak, 2002

Knowledge Vee Methodological components Records (empirical observations) Transformations (graphs, etc organizing records) Knowledge claims – summary statements based on records Value claims – statements of value of knowledge

Beyond Constructivism Real world can be known objectively Language is bound by reality (p. 58) Knowledge Claims checked against reality Sources are sensory (empirical) Sources are culturally transmitted Osborne,

Beyond Constructivism Critiques of constructivism Knowledge development not same as K learning Leads to relativism Can’t explain knowledge not based on direct experience Nature of Science (NOS) not necessarily relevant to learning (p. 67) Osborne,

Beyond Constructivism Science: Provides Knowledge of objective, real world Based on experimentation (uses referents) Involves verification Is reliable Is objective Knowledge is relatively stable Osborne,

Theoretical Perspectives Constructivism Social Radical Instrumentalism Postmodernism Realism Categories of theories: 1. Radical constructivist = “truth replaced by viability” “Science is a cultural product distinguishable by its form, not its methods.” (p. 59) 2. Social constructivist = science education is a type of enculturation (p. 60) Social constructivists have not defense against seeing science as an irrational enterprise where persuasion and force of argument are to be judged 3. Instrumentalist = “Theories are just convenient devices for describing phenomena and connecting one set of events to another.” (p. 57) 4. Realist = scientists act on the world by intervening, manipulating, measuring Discourse/theories can be checked by careful repetition 5. Postmodernist = reality indifferent to our descriptions of it & language is how “human self is created”

Cognitive Processes Progressive differentiation Subsumption Superordinate learning Integrative reconciliation Novak, 2002 Progressive differentiation – makes map more elaborate Subsumption – concepts can be included as subsets and easily linked in Superordinate learning – the web is recognized as part of a larger, more inclusive concept Integrative reconciliation – seemingly different schema are seen as similar or related (p558) Use “Advance organizers”