Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

Chapter Preview Theories of Motivation Hunger and Sex Approaches to Motivation in Everyday Life Emotion The Pursuit of Happiness

Theories of Motivation Motivation as force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do Evolutionary Approach Drive Reduction Theory Optimal Arousal Theory

Evolutionary Approach Ethology Study of animal behavior Instinct Innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species Set in motion by a sign stimulus Motivations for sex, aggression, achievement may be rooted in evolutionary past

Drive Reduction Theory Motivation is to reduce drives Drive Aroused state that occurs due to physiological need Need Deprivation that energizes drive to reduce or eliminate that deprivation Homeostasis Body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium

Optimum Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson Law Performance best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than low or high arousal Low arousal Too lethargic to perform tasks well High arousal May not be able to concentrate

Biology of Hunger Gastric Signals Blood Chemistry Brain Processes Stomach contractions Cholecystokinin (CCK) Blood Chemistry Glucose Insulin Leptin Brain Processes Lateral Hypothalamus Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Obesity Biology of Obesity Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity Genetic component Set point Weight maintained when no effort made to gain or lose weight Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity Emotional state and external stimuli Time and place associations Taste preferences based on past scarcity of reliable food sources

Biology of Sex Brain areas Sex hormones Hypothalamus Cerebral Cortex Limbic System Activated by neurotransmitters and sex hormones Sex hormones Estrogen (females) Androgens (males)

Human Sexual Response Pattern Excitement Phase Begins process of erotic responsiveness Plateau Phase Continuation and heightening of arousal Orgasm Explosive discharge of neuromuscular tension Resolution Phase Return of blood vessels to normal state Refractory period in males

Other Factors in Sex Cognitive Factors Sensory/Perceptual Factors Cognitive capacity to think about sex and about others Sexual Scripts Stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually Sensory/Perceptual Factors Touch Vision Cultural Factors Sex as normal/desirable, or as abnormal/unappealing

Sexual Behavior Kinsey Research (1948) Lots of wild sex, but in non-representative sample Michael’s ‘Sex in America’ Survey (1994) Sexual lives more ordinary than previously believed Differences between males and females Thoughts, feelings, attitudes, behaviors Sex Education Programs Generally more effective than abstinence-only programs

Sexual Orientation Direction of erotic interests Heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual Construct may ignore potential flexibility of human sexual attraction and behavior Combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors Attitudes in society generally more positive

Motivation in Everyday Life Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs Self-Determination Theory Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Self-Regulation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Sequence of needs to satisfy Strongest needs at base, weakest at top Lower needs reflect deficiencies Self-actualization Motivation to develop full potential as human being Highest and most elusive need Ordering of needs may be debatable

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Determination Theory Three basic, innate organismic needs Competence Able to bring about desired outcomes Self-efficacy and mastery Relatedness Need to engage in warm relation with others Autonomy Sense of control of own life Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Cultures

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Based on internal factors May have more positive outcomes Extrinsic Motivation Includes external incentives May diminish intrinsic motivation Successful individuals may be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated.

Self-Regulation Process of effortfully controlling behavior in order to pursue important objectives (goals) Getting feedback as a key aspect Daily mood as a way of receiving feedback Setting goals Concrete and specific goals Long-term vs. short-term goals Planning for implementation Monitoring progress

Emotion Feeling, or affect, that can involve . . . Biological Factors Physiological arousal Conscious experience Behavioral expression Biological Factors Cognitive Factors Behavioral Factors Sociocultural Factors

Biological Factors: Arousal Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Messages to/from body’s internal organs Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) Involved in body’s arousal Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) Calms body Measuring Arousal Skin Conductance Level (SCL) Polygraph, or Lie Detector

Autonomic Nervous System

Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory Stimulus  Physiological Reaction  Emotion Each emotion has distinct set of physiological changes Cannon-Bard Theory Stimulus  Physiological Reaction & Emotion Different emotions could not be associated with specific physiological changes

Theories of Emotion

Neural Circuits & Neurotransmitters Limbic System: Amygdala Plays central role in fear Receives neurons from senses, sends messages to organs Linked with emotional memories Also participates in positive emotions Cerebral hemispheres work differently in positive and negative emotions. Neurotransmitters in neural pathways of emotion Endorphins, dopamine, norepinephrine

Cognitive Factors Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Schachter & Singer (1962) Emotion = Physiological Arousal + Cognitive Labeling Capilano River Bridge Study Dutton & Aron, 1974 Misinterpreted arousal intensifies emotional experiences

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Primacy: Cognition or Emotion? Lazarus (1991) Cognitive activity (appraisals of self and social circumstances) as precondition for emotion Zajonc (1984) Thoughts as a result of emotion “Preferences need no inferences.” Both are likely correct. Lazarus, about clusters of related events over time Zajonc, about single events or simple preferences

Behavioral Factors Verbal or nonverbal Facial expressions as reflecting emotion Facial Feedback Hypothesis Facial expressions as influencing emotion Signals to brain from facial muscles to help recognize emotion being experienced

Sociocultural Factors Culture Facial expressions of basic emotions as universal Display Rules Sociocultural standards determining when, where, how emotions should be expressed Gender Influences Men and women more alike in ways of experiencing emotion than stereotypes suggest May be a difference in emotional intelligence

Classifying Emotions Valence Arousal Level Circumplex model of emotion Whether emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant Negative Affect Negative emotions, such as anger, guilt, sadness Positive Affect Positive emotions, such as joy, happiness, interest Arousal Level Degree to which emotion is reflected in being active, engaged, or excited Circumplex model of emotion

Circumplex Model of Mood

Adaptive Functions of Emotions Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits for survival. Broaden-and-Build Model Function of positive emotions in effects on attention and ability to build resources Resilience Associated with capacity to thrive during difficult times Ability to bounce back from negative experiences

The Pursuit of Happiness Biological Factors Heritability estimates range from 50% to 80% May be a happiness set point Obstacles Hedonic Treadmill Adapting to changes that influence happiness Pursuing happiness as a goal Happiness Activities & Goal Striving Activities associated with enhanced positive emotion Commitment to pursuit of personally meaningful goals