Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers 1971) Donor ––> Recipient Small costs, large gains, reciprocated Sentinels Robert Trivers Biological basis for our sense of justice? Friendship, gratitude, sympathy, loyalty, betrayal, guilt, dislike, revenge, trust, suspicion, dishonesty, hypocrisy

Game Theoretic Approaches Costs versus benefits of behaviors “tit for tat” strategy can lead to cooperation (“the future casts a long shadow back on the present”) Evolutionarily stable strategies = ESS (a tactic that when present in a population, cannot be beaten) John Maynard Smith

Evolution of Self Deceipt Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments

Summary of Direct Pairwise Interactions Between Two Populations _________________________________________________________________ Species Type of Interaction A B Nature of Interaction __________________________________________________________________ Competition –– Each population inhibits the other Predation, parasitism, +– Population A, the predator, parasite, and Batesian mimicry or mimic, kills or exploits members of population B, the prey, host, or model Mutualism, ++Interaction is favorable to both (can Müllerian mimicry be obligatory or facultative) Commensalism +0Population A, the commensal, benefits whereas B, the host, is not affected Amensalism –0Population A is inhibited, but B is unaffected Neutralism 00Neither party affects the other __________________________________________________________________

Exploitation competition (resource depression) Interference competition (direct antagonistic encounters)

Complex Population Interactions Rob Colwell

Mutualistic Interactions and Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism (obligate and facultative) Termite endosymbionts Commensalisms (Cattle Egrets) Examples: Bullhorn Acacia ant colonies (Beltian bodies) Caterpillars “sing” to ants (protection) Ants tend aphids for their honeydew, termites cultivate fungi Bacteria and fungi in roots provide nutrients (carbon reward) Bioluminescence (bacteria) Endozoic algae (Hydra), “kidnapped” chloroplasts Endosymbiosis (Margulis) mitochondria & chloroplasts Birds on water buffalo backs, picking crocodile teeth Figs and fig wasps (pollinate, lay eggs, larvae develop)

“Cleaner” fish — Saber toothed blenny

Honey guide and honey badger (ratel)

Plant-pollinator, plant seed dispersal (flowers, fruit) Carbohydrate reward (nectar, fruit pulp) Pollinating “vectors” — high degree of plant-animal specificity assures that pollen will not be wasted. Costs versus benefits to both plant and pollinator. Must provide large enough reward to make it worthwhile for pollinator to visit flower, but small enough to assure that the pollinator will continue to look for another flower (in order to move pollen)

Euglossine bees Orchid fragrances (epiphytes) Male bees use orchid chemicals as base for production of pheromones to attract female bees (travel up to 23 km) pollinate rare and diverse orchids, allowing sparsely distributed plants to occur at astonishing low densities

Heliconius tropical butterflies get amino acids from pollen Larry Gilbert

Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle ________________________________________________________ Number of Number Percent Associated Egrets Category of Cattle Cattle Expected Observed ___________________________________________________________________ Grazing in sun Grazing in shade Standing in sun Standing in shade Lying in sun Lying in shade Walking ______________________ Total ________________________________________________________

Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle ______________________________________________________________________ Number of Times Mean Count Was Higher Number Than for Opposite Number of Per Minute Egret Associated Egrets ______________________________________________________________________ Feedings, N = 84 Associated Nonassociated Steps, N = 62 Associated Nonassociated Feeding/step, N = 59 Associated Nonassociated __________________________________________________________ Harold Heatwole