© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Children Cognitive Development In Early Childhood 9

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Operations: internalized set of actions Preoperational stage –Ages 2 to 7 –Stable concepts formed –Mental reasoning, magical beliefs emerge –Cannot reverse mental actions –Contains 2 substages: symbolic function and intuitive Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Symbolic Function Stage First substage of preoperational thought –Occurs in ages 2 to 4, imaginative drawings –Ability to mentally represent object not present –Thoughts limited by beliefs: Egocentrism: inability to distinguish own perspectives from those of others Animism: inanimate objects are life-like Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Three Mountains Task View 1 Child seated here (a) (b) (d) (c) View 2 Child seated here (a) (b) (d) (c)

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children (b) 11-year-old’s drawing, which is more realistic and less inventive (a) 3½-year-old’s “a pelican kissing a seal”

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Intuitive Thought Substage –Uses primitive reasoning, seeks answers to all Occurs about 4 to 7 years of age –Limits in preoperational thought: Centration: focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others Conservation: realizes altering object’s substance does not change it quantitatively Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget’s Conservation Task (b)(a) A B C

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s Theory Social constructionist approach –Focuses on cognitive development –Children: active construction of knowledge and understanding by actions and interactions Depends on tools used by society Shaped by cultural context Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s Theory The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) –Lower limit: what child achieves independently –Upper limit: what can be achieved with assistance of able instructor –Cognitive skills in process of maturing –Scaffolding: changing level of support over course of teaching session to fit child’s current performance level Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s Theory Language and Thought –Children’s language uses solving tasks and social communication Plans, monitors, guides behavior Private speech: self-regulation –All mental functions have external, social origins –Ages 3-7: external to internal speech transition Internalized egocentric speech is thoughts Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s Theory Teaching Strategies –Assess and use child’s ZPD in teaching –Use more-skilled peers as teachers –Monitor and encourage private speech use –Place instruction in meaningful context –Transform classroom with Vygotsky’s ideas Tools of the Mind –Visitor presentations, field trips, ‘theme’ activities, journal and story writing, reading Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s Theory Evaluating the theory: –Inner speech important to development –Social interaction affects learning/knowledge –Extends ‘endpoint’ of cognitive development –Teachers serve as facilitators, Piaget agrees –Criticisms: Age-related changes not specific enough Over-emphasized role of language Socioemotional-cognitive link needs more Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Explores how child processes information –Limitations and advances on: Ability to focus attention Develop strategies and store memories Understand mental processes of self, others Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Attention –Focusing of cognitive resources –Visual attention dramatically increases during preschool years; still has deficits Executive attention: –Action planning, focus on goals, detects errors, deals with novel or difficult circumstances Sustained attention: –Focused, extended engagement with object, task, event, etc. Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Planfulness of Attention In 3 pairs of houses, the windows were different In 3 pairs of houses, all windows were identical J (b) (a) J By filming the reflection in children’s eyes, one could determine what they looked at, how long they looked, and the sequence of their eye movements.

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Memory –Retention of information over time –Implicit memory –Explicit memory comes in many forms Short-term: retained up to 30 seconds –Greatest increase during early childhood Long term: unlimited –Varies among individuals, affected by age and experiences Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Developmental Changes in Memory Span In one study: memory span increased from 3 digits at age 2 to 5 digits at age 7 Adults Age (years) Digit Span

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Accuracy of children’s long-term memories –Usually increases with age –Memory improves with cues and prompts –Age differences in suggestion susceptibility –Individual differences in susceptibility –Interviewing techniques can distort reports even when absence of motivation to falsify (false memories) –Many factors affect reliability of eyewitness testimony Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Strategies and Problem Solving –Strategies: deliberate mental activities to improve processing information –Toddlers can learn a strategy –Early childhood: stimulus-driven changes to goal-directed problem solving –Some cognitive inflexibility in ages 3 to 4 due to lack of understanding Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing The Child’s Theory of Mind –Awareness of mental processes of self, others –Ages 18 months to 3 years, child understands three mental states are related to behavior Perceptions Emotions Desires –Ages 3-5: realizes there are ‘false beliefs’ –Ages 5-7: deeper appreciation of mind itself Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing The Child’s Theory of Mind –Ages 5-6: knows different experiences exist –Age 7: realizes knowledge is subjective –Theory focuses on preschool years to age 7 –Individual differences include: number of siblings, disabilities, parental interactions –Executive function: flexible future-oriented Important developments occur after age 7 Three Views of Cognitive Changes in Early Childhood

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Information Processing Theory of Mind and Autism Autism: in 2-6 of every 1,000 children –Linked to genetic and brain abnormalities (impairment ranges from severe to mild) –Difficulty in social interactions and developing theory of mind affected by: Inability to focus Some general intellectual impairment –Some areas of brain may be above normal How Young Children Develop Language

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Understanding Phonology and Morphology Preschool years: –Increased sensitivity to spoken sounds and ability to produce sounds of their language Vowels, consonants (simple, complex) Notice rhymes, poems, silly names –Knows morphological rules –Learn and use rules of syntax Vocabulary development is dramatic By 1st grade: knows 14,000 words How Young Children Develop Language

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Advances in Pragmatics Age, maturity improve language skills –Better conversationalists –Engage in extended discourse Learn culturally-specific rules, behaviors Talk more about events in time, absent objects and persons –Ability to change speech style to fit situation develops by age 4-5; more polite and formal How Young Children Develop Language

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Young Children’s Literacy Re-examining early education in U.S. –Concerns about abilities to read and write –Supportive environment needed earlier –Precursors to literacy and academic success: Language skills Phonological and syntactic knowledge Letter identification Conceptual knowledge about print Conventions and functions of print How Young Children Develop Language

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Variations in Early Childhood Education 38 states publicly fund preschool programs –Child-centered Kindergarten Educate the whole child Instruction: interests, needs, learning style Stress how learned; not what is learned Play is important, various activities used Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Variations in Early Childhood Education Preschool programs –Montessori approach Considerable freedom and spontaneity Encourage decisions, teacher as facilitator Self-regulated, independent problem solving Effective time management, responsibility –Criticisms: Deemphasizes verbal interaction, neglects social development, restricts imagination Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Variations in Early Childhood Education Developmentally appropriate education –Children Learn best from active, hands-on teaching Need individual differences considered Need socioemotional development Developmentally inappropriate education Rely on abstract paper-and-pencil activities Extensive use of rote drills, seatwork, tests Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Literacy and Early Childhood Education Reading and Writing –Children should experience feelings of success and pride in early reading and writing exercises –Early efforts should be encouraged –Children need models to emulate Math –Early childhood educators need to introduce mathematical concepts, methods, and language –Special concerns for low-SES children Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Educating Young Children Who Are Disadvantaged 1965: U.S. tries to break cycle of poverty –Project Head Start To provide opportunity for children from low- income families to acquire experiences, skills important for school success Not all programs are created equal Most provide quality childhood education Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Controversies in Early Childhood Education Curriculum controversies –What to teach, how to teach it, who needs it –Is preschool education necessary for all? Should there be ‘universal’ preschool quality? –Does preschool matter? Home environments and parents vary –What is required for school readiness? Reforms continue, inadequacies recognized Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Controversies in Early Childhood Education Caregiver activities necessary in earliest years to ensure ‘readiness’ for school –Encourage exploration, mentor in basic skills –Celebrate developmental advances –Research and extend new skills –Protect from inappropriate disapproval, testing, and punishment, guide and limit behavior Some parents ‘hold children back’ from entering school for an additional year Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Diversity in Children’s Development Japan: –Preschools: little emphasis on academics Experience being a member of the group –Kindergartens have specific aims Identical uniforms and caps worn Classrooms: identical in equipment In large cities: kindergartens tied to universities Outside U.S.: children given fewer choices Important Features of Young Children’s Education

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End 9