Chapter 23: Land Empires in the Age of Imperialism, 1800-1870

Egypt and the Napoleonic Example Modernization and Expansion in Egypt Napoleon took over Egypt and left his generals in charge to run the country Following Napoleon’s withdrawal from Egypt in 1801, Muhammad Ali ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848 He began the political, social, and economic reforms that created modern Egypt

Muhammad Ali

Ali’s main goal was to give Egypt the military strength needed to prevent another European conquest He made use of European experts and techniques to accomplish that goal Set up a European style state school system and opened a military college Peasants were required to cultivate cotton and other crops for export By the 1830’s, Egypt had become the strongest state in the Islamic world The technical expertise of the West was combined with Islamic religious and cultural traditions

The Ottoman Empire and the European Model (pg. 675)

Introduction In the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire sought to remove the influence of religious elites over the state and the economy Created a practical base for the creation of a Turkish republic in the twentieth century

Early Struggles for Reform (1793 – 1807) Reforms brought about by Sultan Selim III during this time were failures because of the large influence held by the conservative Janissaries (elite Ottoman warriors, originally Christian slaves)

Janissaries often led revolts within the Ottoman Empire Example: In Serbia, Janissaries were able to create an independent state after disobeying the sultan’s direct orders Some Ottoman nobles also opposed reform, as it likely meant that new taxes would be placed on them Eventually, Selim III was executed

Army and Society in the Early Tanzimat (1826 – 1853) In 1826, Selim III’s cousin, Sultan Mahmud II revived the reform movement Saw that reform needed to be done more forcefully Used the loss of Greece as an example of Ottoman weakness and the need for change

Greek independence in 1829 was a complex event that had dramatic international significance The Ottoman’s viewed the ability to control Greece and Anatolia (modern day Turkey) as a sign of God’s favor Europeans and Russians saw the capture of Constantinople as a justification for a new holy war against the Ottoman Empire Renewed interest in the classical age of Greece and Rome during the 19th century led to direct European support for the Greek independence movement

Mahmud II saw that his empire was much weaker than those of Europe He attempted to destroy the Janissaries in 1826 Reduced the political power of the religious elite, attempted to secularize the empire

The Tanzimat (restructuring) was a series of reforms announced by Mahmud’s son and successor, Abdul Mejid, in 1839 A proclamation of basic political rights, similar to England’s “Magna Carta” Public trials and equal protection under the law regardless of religion New methods of military conscription and tax collecting Closest thing to a constitution that any Islamic country had

Military reforms took on a very European approach Cadets were sent to France and Germany to train Military uniforms were modeled after the French European instructors taught at the school of military sciences

Other education reforms soon followed In 1838 the first medical school was created for army doctors and surgeons A national system of preparatory schools was created Because of these European style changes, French became a prominent language among well-educated people

The Crimean War Since the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had been trying to expand southward at the expense of the Ottoman Empire Russia was poised to seize territory in the Balkans/Eastern Europe

The Crimean War lasted between 1853 and 1856 Primarily a war between Russia and the Ottomans but it also involved other European nations, fearing a more powerful Russian Empire The British and French navies were able to trap the Russian navy in the Black Sea A lack of railroads hurt Russia’s abilities to supply its forces

A formal alliance between Britain, France, & the Ottoman Empire blocked Russian expansion into Eastern Europe & the Middle East The Crimean War brought significant changes to all the combatants In Russia, the tsar and his government were discredited, leading to reforms that damaged the nation’s political stability In Britain and France, massive propaganda campaigns were launched during the war in order to draw support

In the 1830s and 1840s, rifle technology improved greatly The Crimean War marked the transition from traditional to modern warfare These nations prided themselves on their effective use of highly trained cavalry to smash through the front lines of infantry Early rifles were awkward to load, vulnerable to explosion, and not very accurate In the 1830s and 1840s, rifle technology improved greatly Percussion caps allowed guns to be fired without being ignited by hand Breech-loading rifles were quicker to load and more accurate than older guns

In wars after this time period, machine guns became a common instrument of war Resulted in a new scale of battlefield fatalities, hundreds of thousands over only a few years Railways allowed these large guns to be easily moved to the frontlines

The transformation of decisive weaponry meant a change in the general ways of war Heavy cavalry becomes less important Light, accurate firearms were emphasized Infantry units pinned each other down in trenches for weeks, waiting for the enemy to be wiped out by disease or despair Long range artillery, mines, hand grenades, and mustard gas all became commonly used during this time Soldiers were taught to shoot from behind barriers and began wearing inconspicuous colors that made them harder to shoot The military began to lose its connection with the aristocracy, horses, and ceremonial uniforms