Learning goals: w Understand the use of concepts w Identify and understand methods of problem solving w Identify barriers to effective problem- solving w Differentiate between various heuristics

Focus on thinking: w conscious, subconscious, and preconscious influences on problem solving, reasoning, and decision making

Problem solving: w A man bought a horse for $60 and sold it for $70. Then he bought the same horse back for $80 and again sold it, for $90. How much money did he make in the horse business?

More problems: w Tower of Hanoi w One up, one down Discover the rule to the game w The link dilemma

And even more problems w Exactly at sunrise one morning, a monk set out to climb a tall mountain. The narrow path was not more than a foot or two wide, and it wound around the mountain to a beautiful, glittering temple at the mountain peak. The monk climbed the path at varying rates of speed. He stopped many times along the way to rest. The next day, he began his journey home back along the same path, starting at sunrise and walking at variable speeds. His average speed going down the hill was faster than his average speed going up. Prove that there must be a spot along the path that the monk will pass on both trips at exactly the same time of day.

Methods of problem solving: w informal methods: trial and error - several possible solutions are tested until one is found insight - solution derives from a sudden understanding

Methods of problem solving: w formal methods: inductive reasoning - general conclusions from specific instances deductive reasoning - general conclusions are applied to specific instances algorithm - formal logic rule with guaranteed results heuristic - quick rule-of-thumb with risk of error concept – mental grouping of similar items prototype - representative example

Barriers to problem solving: w avoiding loss w confirmation bias w fixation (mental sets) w hindsight bias w cognitive dissonance w availability heuristic w representative heuristic w overconfidence w framing w belief perseverance

Desire to avoid loss w tendency to make choices to avoid loss more than to risk gain

Confirmation bias w tendency to seek evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence to the contrary

Fixation (mental sets) w tendency to find a single pattern or viewpoint that dominates judgment and thinking w functional fixedness: inability to find novel uses for familiar items

Hindsight bias w tendency to overestimate your knowledge of a particular event or item after you know the outcome

Cognitive dissonance reduction w tendency to change either belief or attitude (when the two are contradictory)

Reliance on heuristics w availability heuristic: basing judgments on resent knowledge w representative heuristic: basing judgments on “typical” models or prototypes

Overconfidence w tendency to overestimate the correctness of answers or responses

Framing of questions w influence of the wording of questions on responses or judgments

Belief perseverance w tendency to maintain original views in spite of contradictory information w belief bias: tendency for beliefs to distort logic