Day 1: Research Questions and Conceptual Models Wendy Machalicek IES Summer Research Institute: Constructing Single-Case Designs Based on Research Questions and Logic Models Acknowledgement: Dr. Rob Horner Day 1: Research Questions and Conceptual Models Wendy Machalicek

Objectives Four core elements of single case research questions Add a specification of “expected effect” Functions and features of conceptual models within Single Case methods.

Research Question Dependent variable: Assumption: You are all excellent at writing research questions. You were funded. This is more about training new scholars Four Elements: Dependent variable: The valued outcome or focus of the study Independent variable The variable that is actively manipulated by the researcher and is assumed to be causally linked to change in the dependent variable Functional relation (causal relationship) Documentation of description, prediction and control of change in dependent variable via manipulation of the independent variable. Indicate the change predicted (level, trend, variability) Predicted change in pattern Level, trend, variability

Research Question Examples Is there a functional relation between instruction to build reading fluency and increased level of scores on reading comprehension assessments? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Walking in water = IV Improved gait for children with gait imbalance = DV (write a research question) Is there a functional relation between use of escape-extinction and reduction in the level of escape-motivated food refusal? Write a research question with something other than “level” as the predicted pattern of change. Is there a functional relation between “water walking training” and level of scores on the “gait precision index” (GPI) under typical conditions? -trend, variability Identify: IV, DV, Functional Relation, Expected Pattern

Examples: Does functional communication training reduce problem behavior? Is there a functional relation between functional communication training and reduction in the level of problem behavior for typical elementary school students? Is “time-delay prompting” or “least-to-most prompting” more effective in teaching self-help skills for young children with severe intellectual disabilities? Is there a functional relation between use of “time-delay prompting” versus “least-to-most prompting” on the rate of skill acquisition (slope) by young children with severe intellectual disabilities?

Research Question non- Examples The study will provide a systematic analysis of the reduction in stuttering by adolescents. Self-delivered consequences are a core element of any analysis of self-determination, and will be the focus of this research investigation.

What research questions are appropriate for single case research? Examine effects of introducing or manipulating an independent variable on change in one or more dependent variables. Examine effects of alternating between two or more interventions on change in a dependent variable. Examine effects of adding or removing a component of a multi-component intervention on change in a dependent variable.

The Role of Conceptual Models in Design of Single Case Research Conceptual Model Defined A conceptual model identifies: (a) the dependent variable, (b) the multiple contextual variables that affect the dependent variable (c) theoretical mechanism(s) by which the existing variable(s) in the natural setting affect the dependent variable, and (d) the conceptual relationship among contextual variables.(interactions) During the early to mid-1990s, funders began increasing their emphasis on outcomes and accountability. As a result, people began paying more attention to TOCs and logic models and often created their own definitions of these concepts to meet their needs. A logic model is a tactical explanation of the process of producing a given outcome. It outlines the program inputs and activities, the outputs they will produce, and the connections between those outputs and the desired outcomes. a logic model can be used to explain how that outcome will be produced. Thus, one TOC could actually be linked to a number of logic models, because a logic model could be constructed to illustrate how to produce each outcome in the TOC map. The TOC summarizes work at a strategic level, while a logic model would be used to illustrate the tactical, or program-level, understanding of the change process. Context Variable Valued Social Outcome: DV Setting Conditions Distinguish between “conceptual model” and “logic model” Variable Variable

What is the value of the Conceptual Model? Promotes development of a program of research Improves precision of research question Defines features of study that should be held constant when main Independent Variable is manipulated. Guides development of measurement Measurement of dependent variable(s) Measurement of independent variable(s) Provides foundation for adaptations to the study if expected results do not materialize. Clarifies interaction effects (e.g., Cascading Logic)

Cascading Logic Intervention: Teacher Training Change in Teacher Behavior Change in Student Behavior Avoid Intervention: Teacher Training Change in Student Behavior

Building a Conceptual Model Setting Conditions How is social problem defined? Context Variables That Affect Core Variables Core The Dependent Variable (what is it? How to measure it?) Core mechanism Core Start with your DV and conduct “backwards mapping” to ID core variables/mechanisms (one includes your intervention), context variables that affect core variables

Building a Conceptual Model Is there a functional relation between high versus low rates of instructional pacing and level of classroom disruption and non-compliance? Classroom expectations defined and taught State and Federal emphasis on academic and social success for all students School-wide behavior support practices Classroom disruption and non-compliance Curriculum content Instructional pacing Opportunities to respond Rate of instructional success Write a research question focused on the impact of changing the rate of instructional pacing on classroom disruption.

% of intervals with verbal and/or physical aggression Example: Bullying Peer / bystander attention for bullying Reprimand or period of time without attention: immediate antecedent School-wide discipline systems: __________ School-wide expectations School-wide consequences Social rewards for appropriate behavior Victim attention Bullying: ------------- % of intervals with verbal and/or physical aggression Limited social initiation skills Tangible objects Adult models Media models and video examples Self-delivered consequences

Scott Ross & Rob Horner Utah State University and University of Oregon Bully Prevention In Positive Behavior Support Scott Ross & Rob Horner Utah State University and University of Oregon www.pbis.org

Elements of Effective Bully Prevention School-wide PBIS Data Use Bully Prevention Logic Faculty Implementation Student Use of BP-PBIS Advanced Support

Core Features of an Effective Bully Prevention Effort Five Student Skills For Faculty/Staff School-wide behavioral expectations (respect) Stop routine when faced with disrespectful behavior Bystander stop routine when observing disrespectful behavior Stopping routine if someone tells you to “stop” A recruit help routine to recruit adult help if you feel unsafe Agreement on logic for bully prevention effort Strategy for teaching students core skills Strategy for follow-up and consistency in responding Clear data collection and data use process Advanced support options

social culture Predictable, consistent, positive and safe (expectations defined, taught, acknowledged) Stop Change in the rewards for bullying Change in likelihood of bullying Everyone can identify “respectful” and non-respectful behavior Walk Talk

Whole school implementation of SWPBIS Ross, S. W., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Bully prevention in positive behavior support. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(4), 747-759. Three Schools Six students identified for high rates of verbal and physical aggression toward others Whole school implementation of SWPBIS Whole school addition of Stop-Walk-Talk Direct observation of problem behavior on playground

72% 3.14 1.88 .88

28% increase 19% decrease BP-PBS, Scott Ross

21% increase 22% decrease Recipients of bullying said “stop” 30% of the time (a 28% increase from baseline), helped the victim “walk” away 13% of the time (a 10% increase), delivered a positive response 8% of the time (an 11% decrease), delivered a negative response 15% of the time (a 19% decrease), and delivered no response 34% of the time (a 9% decrease). Bystanders of bullying said “stop” 22% of the time (a 21% increase), helped the victim “walk” away 13% of the time (an 11% increase), delivered a positive response 17% of the time (a 22% decrease), delivered a negative response 8% of the time (a 10% decrease), and delivered no response 41% of the time (a 1% increase). BP-PBS, Scott Ross

Build a Conceptual Model Variables, Relationships, Mechanisms Patterson et al Antisocial boys: Coercion Theory Engelmann & Carnine Theory of Instruction Walker Social competence Sugai School-wide Positive Behavior Support

Examples of Conceptual Models Social Learning Theory: Coercion Model (Patterson et al) DV = antisocial behavior IV = social interactions with adults Mechanism = negative reinforcement Prediction: Adult contingent removal of demands based on tantrum will increase likelihood of tantrum.

Less likely to make requests/ demands Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships (Patterson et al) Less likely to make requests/ demands Coercion Cycle Person A (adult) Person B (child) 2. Responds with aversive event (B) Delivery of aversive event (A) Request, demand Scream, tantrum 3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced 4. Aversive event (B) removed Remove request Stop scream/tantrum

More likely to scream when demand is made Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships More likely to scream when demand is made Coercion Cycle Person A (adult) Person B (child) 2. Responds with aversive event (B) Delivery of aversive event (A) Request, demand Scream, tantrum 3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced 4. Aversive event (B) removed Remove request Stop scream/tantrum

More likely to remove demand when tantrum occurs Sustainable Positive Behavior Support: Building Constructive vs. Coercive Relationships More likely to remove demand when tantrum occurs Coercion Cycle Person A (adult) Person B (child) 2. Responds with aversive event (B) Delivery of aversive event (A) Request, demand Scream, tantrum 3. Aversive event (A) removed or reduced 4. Aversive event (B) removed Remove request Stop scream/tantrum

Effects of Coercion Model (Behavioral Mechanisms: Positive punishment, Negative reinforcement) Parent teaches child to tantrum Child teaches parent to Decrease demands Remove demands The use of aversive events within a self-regenerating cycle. Application to family dynamics Application to school (teacher/student) dynamics Application to personal relationships

Diagram Conceptual Model Child Tantrum Adult removal of demand given tantrum Adult delivery of a request/ demand to do a non-preferred behavior Dependent Variable: 1. Likelihood of a tantrum following an adult request Child Compliance Adult delivery of rewards given compliance

Lucyshyn et al., 2013

Conceptual Model: First Step to Success (Walker) K-3 Intervention Identify student with problem behavior Attach a “first step coach” Teaching appropriate behavior Prompts appropriate behavior Reward appropriate behavior Redirects problem behavior Remove attention for problem behavior Establish group contingencies Apply additional consequences for problem behavior Use “Red Card/Green Card” to transfer control to teacher Direct observation of fidelity and impact to guide adaptation

Conceptual Model: First Step to Success

Rate of Praise from Teacher Adult Attention Disruptive Behavior Task Difficulty Peer Prompts Rate of Praise from Teacher Teacher attention Dependent Variable: (a) Level of disruptive behavior, (b) academic engagement Peer Attention Academic Engagement Escape from Tasks

Build a conceptual model for the following research question? Is there a functional relation between improved level of oral reading fluency and immediacy of instructional feedback? Repeated Reading: students are asked to read short and meaningful passages until the desired level of fluency is achieved for that passage. Students should be timed and receive systematic, corrective feedback from their teacher during repeated reading. Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS; L. S. Fuchs, Fuchs, Kazdan, & Allen, 1999; Mathes & Babyak, 2001): two students are paired together and asked to play the role of either the coach or the student. When the “student” reads, the “coach” listens and provides corrective feedback. Tape-assisted reading: students are asked to read a passage along with an audio-recording of the passage.  Students may perform this task with a teacher or independently. Slide and Glide: the teacher reads the first portion of a sentence and then the student finishes the sentence. This process is repeated throughout an entire passage.

Application Using a research area of interest to you Build conceptual model Define one or more research questions

Summary Research Questions Conceptual Model/Conceptual Logic Include prediction of pattern of responding Conceptual Model/Conceptual Logic Define core conceptual variables to improve precision and flexibility