A Guide to Speaking & Listening

An argument is: A = Assertion R = Reasoning E = Evidence

Assertion A statement that you’re trying to prove with an argument.

Assertion Examples Boxing is intended to harm the participant. The death penalty is justified. Hyacinths are better than roses. Economic growth is more important than environmental protection. The USA should eliminate its nuclear arsenal.

Reasoning The “because” part of your argument, offering support for your assertion.

Reasoning Example Unlike other sports, in which physical collisions and body damage occurs, the point of boxing is to do harm to an opponent. The goal in boxing is the “knock-out” – unconsciousness that is actually the result of brain damage.

Evidence Support for your reasoning, using contemporary or historical examples, statistical or scientific information.

Evidence Example And boxers succeed in doing a great deal of harm. Levander Johnson died from brain injuries; both Quarry brothers passed away before the age of 55 from a lifetime of beatings; Michael Watson is confined to a wheelchair; Muhammad Ali has Parkinson’s disease from second impact syndrome. According to the Journal of Combat Sport, as many as 1,000 boxers may have died in the past century, with many thousands more seriously injured.

Another Example  Assertion: The minimum driving age should be raised to 18.  Reasoning: The driving age will save lives by reducing accidents.  Evidence: According to a 2006 report by AAA, 16 year-old drivers have three times as many crashes as drivers aged 18 and 19.

Refutation (rebuttal) Steps  Step 1: “They say…”  Step 2: “But…”  Step 3: “Because…”  Step 4: “Therefore…”

Step 1: “They say…” Briefly restate the point you’re about to answer.

Step 2: “But…” Make your counterpoint, counter assertion.

Step 3: “Because…” Offer reasoning and evidence to support your counter-assertion, counter- point.

Step 4: “Therefore…” Conclude your point by comparing it to the point you’re answering.

Refutation Example I Speaker 1 Says: “Bananas are better than oranges because they contain more potassium.”

Speaker 2 Says: Speaker 1 says that bananas are better than oranges, but oranges are better than bananas because they contain more vitamin C. Therefore, people should prefer oranges because while many foods in an ordinary diet contain potassium, few contain very much vitamin C.

Refutation Example II Speaker 1 Says: Junk food should be banned in all schools.

Speaker 2 Says: Speaker 1 says that junk food should be banned in all schools, but I disagree, because if we ban junk food in schools, children will just eat more junk food before and after school. Therefore, It’s better to allow junk food in schools where we can regulate how much children eat.

Practice with Arguments  Assertion: Television is a bad influence.  Reasoning: Television shows too much violence.  Evidence:

Practice with Arguments  Assertion: The United States should not have the death penalty.  Reasoning:  Evidence: Since 1973, 108 people in 25 states have been released from death row because new evidence found them innocent.

Practice with Arguments  Assertion:  Reasoning: Eating junk food is bad for your health.  Evidence: Junk foods are high in fat and sugar. Too much fat and sugar puts you at risk for diabetes and heart disease.

Researching for Debate  Cast a wide net  Make sure your sources are reliable  Explore both sides of the issue  Keep notes  Consider Who is or may be affected by this issue & In What Ways might they be affected?