Chapter 24 The Origin of Species

Overview: That “Mystery of Mysteries” In the Galápagos Islands Darwin discovered plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth Video: Galápagos Tortoise Video: Galápagos Tortoise

Fig. 24-1

Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations evolve Microevolution consists of adaptations that evolve within a population, confined to one gene pool Macroevolution refers to evolutionary change above the species level Animation: Macroevolution Animation: Macroevolution

Concept 24.1: The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation Species is a Latin word meaning “kind” or “appearance” Biologists compare morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and DNA sequences when grouping organisms

The Biological Species Concept The biological species concept states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype of a population together

Fig (a) Similarity between different species (b) Diversity within a species

Fig. 24-2a (a) Similarity between different species

Fig. 24-2b (b) Diversity within a species

Fig EXPERIMENT RESULTS Example of a gene tree for population pair A-B AllelePopulation Gene flow event 1 B B B B A A A Allele 1 is more closely related to alleles 2, 3, and 4 than to alleles 5, 6, and 7. Inference: Gene flow occurred. Alleles 5, 6, and 7 are more closely related to one another than to alleles in population A. Inference: No gene flow occurred. Pair of populations with detected gene flow Estimated minimum number of gene flow events to account for genetic patterns Distance between populations (km) A-B K-L A-C B-C F-G G-I C-E 5 3 2– – ,390 1,190 1, ,310

Fig. 24-3a EXPERIMENT Example of a gene tree for population pair A-B AllelePopulation Gene flow event 1B B B B A A A Allele 1 is more closely related to alleles 2, 3, and 4 than to alleles 5, 6, and 7. Inference: Gene flow occurred. Alleles 5, 6, and 7 are more closely related to one another than to alleles in population A. Inference: No gene flow occurred.

Fig. 24-3b RESULTS Pair of populations with detected gene flow Estimated minimum number of gene flow events to account for genetic patterns Distance between populations (km) A-B K-L A-C B-C F-G G-I C-E 5 3 2– – ,390 1, ,110 1,310

Fig. 24-3c Grey-crowned babblers

Reproductive Isolation Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether factors act before or after fertilization

Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring by: Impeding different species from attempting to mate Preventing the successful completion of mating Hindering fertilization if mating is successful

Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers

Fig Prezygotic barriers Habitat Isolation Individuals of different species Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mating attempt Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid ViabilityReduced Hybrid Fertility Postzygotic barriers Hybrid Breakdown Viable, fertile offspring (a) (b) (d) (c)(e) (f) (g)(h) (i) (j) (l) (k)

Fig. 24-4a Habitat IsolationTemporal Isolation Prezygotic barriers Behavioral Isolation Mating attempt Mechanical Isolation (f) (e) (c) (a) (b) (d) Individuals of different species

Fig. 24-4i Prezygotic barriers Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid Viability Postzygotic barriers Reduced Hybrid FertilityHybrid Breakdown Viable, fertile offspring (g) (h) (i) (j) (l) (k)

Fig. 24-4b Prezygotic barriers Habitat Isolation Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mechanical Isolation Individuals of different species Mating attempt

Prezygotic barriers Fig. 24-4j Gametic Isolation Fertilization Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Postzygotic barriers Hybrid Breakdown Viable, fertile offspring

Fig. 24-4c (a) Water-dwelling Thamnophis

Fig. 24-4d (b) Terrestrial Thamnophis

Temporal isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes

Fig. 24-4e (c) Eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius)

Fig. 24-4f (d) Western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis)

Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual

Fig. 24-4g (e) Courtship ritual of blue- footed boobies

Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences can prevent successful mating

Fig. 24-4h (f) Bradybaena with shells spiraling in opposite directions

Gametic isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species

Fig. 24-4k (g) Sea urchins

Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult: Reduced hybrid viability Reduced hybrid fertility Hybrid breakdown

Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid’s development

Fig. 24-4l (h) Ensatina hybrid

Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile

Fig. 24-4m (i) Donkey

Fig. 24-4n ( j) Horse

Fig. 24-4o (k) Mule (sterile hybrid)

Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

Fig. 24-4p (l) Hybrid cultivated rice plants with stunted offspring (center)

Limitations of the Biological Species Concept The biological species concept cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms (including all prokaryotes)

Other Definitions of Species Other species concepts emphasize the unity within a species rather than the separateness of different species The morphological species concept defines a species by structural features It applies to sexual and asexual species but relies on subjective criteria

The ecological species concept views a species in terms of its ecological niche It applies to sexual and asexual species and emphasizes the role of disruptive selection The phylogenetic species concept: defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree It applies to sexual and asexual species, but it can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species

Concept 24.2: Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation Speciation can occur in two ways: Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation

Fig (a) Allopatric speciation (b) Sympatric speciation

Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation In allopatric speciation, gene flow is interrupted or reduced when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations

The Process of Allopatric Speciation The definition of barrier depends on the ability of a population to disperse Separate populations may evolve independently through mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift

Fig A. harrisi A. leucurus

Evidence of Allopatric Speciation Regions with many geographic barriers typically have more species than do regions with fewer barriers

Fig Mantellinae (Madagascar only): 100 species Rhacophorinae (India/Southeast Asia): 310 species Other Indian/ Southeast Asian frogs Millions of years ago (mya) mya65 mya 56 mya India Madagascar

Fig. 24-7a Mantellinae (Madagascar only): 100 species Rhacophorinae (India/Southeast Asia): 310 species Other Indian/ Southeast Asian frogs Millions of years ago (mya)

Fig. 24-7b India 88 mya65 mya 56 mya Madagascar 12 3

Reproductive isolation between populations generally increases as the distance between them increases

Fig Geographic distance (km) Degree of reproductive isolation

Barriers to reproduction are intrinsic; separation itself is not a biological barrier

Fig EXPERIMENT RESULTS Initial population Some flies raised on starch medium Mating experiments after 40 generations Some flies raised on maltose medium Female Starch Maltose population 1 population 2 Male Starch Maltose Male Starch population 1 population Mating frequencies in experimental group Mating frequencies in control group

Fig. 24-9a EXPERIMENT Initial population Some flies raised on starch medium Mating experiments after 40 generations Some flies raised on maltose medium

Fig. 24-9b RESULTS Female Starch Maltose population 1 population 2 Male Starch Maltose Male Starch population 1 population Mating frequencies in experimental group Mating frequencies in control group

Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations

Polyploidy Polyploidy is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division An autopolyploid is an individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species

Fig n = 64n = 12 Failure of cell division after chromosome duplication gives rise to tetraploid tissue.

Fig n = 64n = 12 Failure of cell division after chromosome duplication gives rise to tetraploid tissue. 2n2n Gametes produced are diploid..

Fig n = 64n = 12 Failure of cell division after chromosome duplication gives rise to tetraploid tissue. 2n2n Gametes produced are diploid.. 4n4n Offspring with tetraploid karyotypes may be viable and fertile.

An allopolyploid is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species

Fig Species A 2n = 6 Normal gamete n = 3 Meiotic error Species B 2n = 4 Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes

Fig Species A 2n = 6 Normal gamete n = 3 Meiotic error Species B 2n = 4 Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes Hybrid with 7 chromosomes

Fig Species A 2n = 6 Normal gamete n = 3 Meiotic error Species B 2n = 4 Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes Hybrid with 7 chromosomes Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes Normal gamete n = 3

Fig Species A 2n = 6 Normal gamete n = 3 Meiotic error Species B 2n = 4 Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes Hybrid with 7 chromosomes Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes Normal gamete n = 3 Viable fertile hybrid (allopolyploid) 2n = 10

Polyploidy is much more common in plants than in animals Many important crops (oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and wheat) are polyploids

Habitat Differentiation Sympatric speciation can also result from the appearance of new ecological niches For example, the North American maggot fly can live on native hawthorn trees as well as more recently introduced apple trees

Sexual Selection Sexual selection can drive sympatric speciation Sexual selection for mates of different colors has likely contributed to the speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria

Fig EXPERIMENT Normal light Monochromatic orange light P. pundamilia P. nyererei

Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation restricts gene flow between populations Reproductive isolation may then arise by natural selection, genetic drift, or sexual selection in the isolated populations Even if contact is restored between populations, interbreeding is prevented

In sympatric speciation, a reproductive barrier isolates a subset of a population without geographic separation from the parent species Sympatric speciation can result from polyploidy, natural selection, or sexual selection