1. BEGGING THE QUESTION (PETITIO PRINCIPII) 2. COMPLEX QUESTION 3. FALSE DICHOTOMY 4. SUPPRESSED EVIDENCE 5. ACCENT OR PROSODY 6. WORD CONSTRUCTION

1. PETITIO PRINCIPII (Begging the question/ REQUEST FOR THE SOURCE) If the argument fails to prove anything Reasoning in circles E.g. All criminals are immoral; therefore, all criminals are not moral. Why are you here? Because I’m not there! All survivors are strong because only… the strong survive. Sleeping pills work because… they cause people to go to sleep.

2. COMPLEX QUESTION intended to trap the respondent into acknowledging something that he or she might otherwise not want to acknowledge. E.g. Have you stopped cheating your girlfriend? Where did you hide the cookies you stole?

3. FALSE DICHOTOMY presumes that an ‘‘either... or...’’ statement presents mutually exhaustive alternatives Third alternative is not possible. E.g. Either you attend my Philo Class or I’ll be miserable for the rest of my life. I know you don’t want me to be miserable for the rest of my life, so it follows that you’ll attend my class. Either you buy me a new laptop, or I may not get that grade that you want me to achieve. Either I continue drinking, or I’ll get fat and you’ll hate to be seen with me.

4. SUPPRESSED EVIDENCE Presumes (consistency of past experiences is similar to future events) that no important evidence has been overlooked by the premises when in fact it has. E.g. Most dogs are friendly and pose no threat to people who pet them. Therefore, it would be safe to pet the little dog that is approaching us now. During the past four years, Miriam has enjoyed being a student. Therefore, Miriam will probably enjoy being a student for the next fifty years.

5. FALLACY OF ACCENT OR PROSODY Arises from a false accent or from a false emphasis in speech. A change in a stress of word spells a change in meaning. E.g. A dessert is a course of fruit served after the meal; But, a desert is a forsaken region; Therefore, a forsaken region is a course of fruit served after meal. Recycle clothes and waste paper

6. FALLACY OF WORD CONSTRUCTION similarity of meaning from the similar pattern of two words is presumed to be the same on other words. E.g. Immortal means not mortal; Immodest means not modest; Therefore, imprinted means… not printed. The plural of mouse is mice; The plural of louse is lice; Therefore, the plural of house… is hice.

1. EQUIVOCATION 2. AMPHIBOLY

1. EQUIVOCATION A word is used in two different senses in an argument. A word with different meanings is used in the same context in a particular argument. E.g. No designing persons are to be trusted; But, architects are people who make designs; Therefore, architects are not to be trusted. A king moves one square in any direction But, Solomon is a king; Therefore, Solomon moves one square in any direction

A tissue is a piece of thin soft absorbent paper. A cell is a tissue; A cell is a piece of thin soft absorbent paper. Cancer is a malignant growth in the body. The fourth sign of the zodiac is Cancer; The fourth sign of the zodiac is a malignant growth in the body.

2. AMPHIBOLY Ambiguity in a statement Arguer misinterprets a statement that is ambiguous and proceeds to draw a conclusion based on this faulty interpretation. Awkward construction of sentence = multiple interpretation E.g. When depressed, a church is a good place to go. The tour guide said that standing in Greenwich Village, the Empire State Building could easily be seen. It follows that the Empire State Building is in Greenwich Village.

Take notice: when this sign is under water, this road is impassable Sign in a maternity ward: “No Children Allowed”

HE: Can I have your name, Miss? SHE: why, don’t you already have one? “I would like to buy a clock for my girlfriend with three hands.” Police: Did you get the plate number? Witness: No sir, it was bolted to the van.

1. COMPOSITION 2. DIVISION

4. FALLACY OF COMPOSITION (parts) – “C-P” what is true of the parts of a whole… is true of the whole thing. THE WHOLE IS A CLASS! (AND THE PARTS ARE THE MEMBERS OF THE CLASS!) composition proceeds from the members of the class to the class itself E.g. Since every part of a machine is light in weight, the machine as a whole is light in weight. Each atom in this piece of chalk is invisible. Therefore, the chalk is invisible

5. FALLACY OF DIVISION (whole) – “D-W” What is true of the whole is true of the parts of the whole. E.g. All the diamond rings inside the jewelry shop cost over one hundred thousand dollars. This diamond ring which was bought inside the jewelry shop costs over one hundred thousand dollars. Since a nation is powerful, every individual citizen of that nation is powerful. A ballpen can write; its parts also can.