Russian Political Institutions

Federalism Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it had a federal government structure Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it had a federal government structure Russian Federation also federal, with the current regime consisting of 83 regions Russian Federation also federal, with the current regime consisting of 83 regions Putin ended direct election of the 83 regional governors, they are now nominated by the president and confirmed by the regional legislatures Putin ended direct election of the 83 regional governors, they are now nominated by the president and confirmed by the regional legislatures Putin created 7 federal districts with appointed “super governors” Putin created 7 federal districts with appointed “super governors”

Elections 3 types 3 types –Referendum-- president can call for national referenda by popular vote on important issues –Duma Elections (changed in 2007)  Now elections are entirely proportional  Single-member districts were eliminated in 2007 upon the initiative of President Putin  The threshold for eligibility to win seats was raised from 5% to 7%  In 2003, 100 of the 225 single-member district seats were won by independents or minor party candidates –Presidential Elections  Direct elections, if no candidate receives 50% of the vote in 1 st round, run-off between top 2

1993 Constitution March 1993 parliament attempted to impeach Yeltsin March 1993 parliament attempted to impeach Yeltsin Legislative-led coup tried to take control of the government Legislative-led coup tried to take control of the government Yeltsin dissolved legislature, called for new elections Yeltsin dissolved legislature, called for new elections Although opposition leaders were arrested, Yeltsin’s opponents won the majority in the new legislature Although opposition leaders were arrested, Yeltsin’s opponents won the majority in the new legislature –Radical Vladimir Zhirinovsky’s Liberal Party did surprisingly well (reflected disappointments with reforms) Despite losing control of the legislature Yeltsin was able to get approval for the new constitution: Constitution of 1993 Despite losing control of the legislature Yeltsin was able to get approval for the new constitution: Constitution of 1993

Constitution of 1993 Created a three-branch government Created a three-branch government –President & Prime Minister (dual executive) –Lower legislative house (Duma) –Constitutional Court (has power of judicial review) Mixed Presidential/Parliamentary system Mixed Presidential/Parliamentary system

Powers of the President Appoints the prime minister and cabinet Appoints the prime minister and cabinet –Duma must approve prime minister’s appointment President may serve 2 successive six-year terms President may serve 2 successive six-year terms Issue decrees that have the force of law Issue decrees that have the force of law Veto legislation Veto legislation Dissolve the Duma and call for new elections Dissolve the Duma and call for new elections –Done by Yeltsin during legislative coup attempt of 1993

Prime Minister Relationship between PM and President not exactly clear Relationship between PM and President not exactly clear Dual executive Dual executive Accountable to the Duma - may be removed through vote of no confidence Accountable to the Duma - may be removed through vote of no confidence Has expanded powers since Putin became PM in 2008 Has expanded powers since Putin became PM in 2008

Bicameral Legislature Duma Duma –Lower House –450 deputies –All chosen by proportional representation –Passes Bills, approves budgets –Confirms president’s political appointments (PM) –Votes of confidence (PM) –Impeach president Federation Council Federation Council –Upper House –Two members from each of the 83 regions –Half now appointed by president –Confirm judicial appointment –Power to delay legislation –Ratify treaties –Approve troop deployments

Judiciary Members appointed by president, confirmed by Federation Council Members appointed by president, confirmed by Federation Council Courts have power of judicial review Courts have power of judicial review

Judiciary Supreme Court Supreme Court –Created by 1993 Constitution –Serves as final court of appeals in criminal & civil cases Constitutional Court Constitutional Court –Created by 1993 Constitution –19 members –Has power of judicial review

Military Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues under the Russian Federation Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues under the Russian Federation Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to early 21 st century Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to early 21 st century –Withdrawal from Afghanistan –Defeated by Chechen guerrillas in conflict –Often ill-equipped, Russian soldiers had to feed themselves and went unpaid for months in late 1990’s and early 21 st century

Political Parties Began forming after 1991 Began forming after 1991 Small, factional Small, factional Formed around particular leaders Formed around particular leaders –“Bloc of General Andrey Nikolaev and Academician Svyaloslav Fyodorov” –“Yuri Boldyrev Movement” (“Yabloko”) Formed around particular issues Formed around particular issues –“Party of Pensioners” –“Agrarian Party of Russia” –“Women of Russia” Only 22% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party Only 22% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party

United Russia Merger between 2 parties to support Putin in the election of 2000 Merger between 2 parties to support Putin in the election of – 315 Duma seats 2007– 315 Duma seats 2011– 238 seats 2011– 238 seats Putin now its leader Putin now its leader United Russia is hard to define other than that it is pro-Putin United Russia is hard to define other than that it is pro-Putin

Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats 2007– 57 Duma seats 2007– 57 Duma seats 2011– – 92 Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism Appeals to rural population and older Russians Appeals to rural population and older Russians

Liberal Democratic Party Controversial party founded in 1991 Controversial party founded in 1991 Headed by Vladimir Zhirinovsky Headed by Vladimir Zhirinovsky –Extreme nationalist –Anti-semitic Victories in 1990s reflected disappointments with reforms Victories in 1990s reflected disappointments with reforms 2007– 40 seats 2007– 40 seats 2011– 56 seats 2011– 56 seats

Reformist Parties Yabloko Yabloko –Founded 1993 –Takes strongest pro- democracy stance –Won 1.6% of vote in the 2007 elections, 3.4% in 2011  Not enough to reach the 7% threshold, so no seats Union of Right Forces Union of Right Forces –Supports free market and privatization –Won 0.96% of vote in the 2007 elections, dissolved in 2008

Interest Groups Oligarchs Oligarchs –By mid-1990s monopolized Russian industry and built huge fortunes –Dominant in oil, media, and television industries –Helped get Vladimir Putin elected in 2000 Russian Mafia Russian Mafia –Larger and perhaps even more influential than the oligarchy –During Revolution of 1991 gained control of businesses, natural resources, and banks –Involved in money laundering, drugs, prostitution, and business payoffs (“protection money”) –Includes former members of the KGB

Linkage Institutions Today Oligarchs and the mafia reflect unequal nature of Russian society Oligarchs and the mafia reflect unequal nature of Russian society In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian government was consolidating power In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian government was consolidating power –Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes, forcing it into bankruptcy Russian Media – close ties to both the state and the oligarchy Russian Media – close ties to both the state and the oligarchy Significant limits on freedom of the press Significant limits on freedom of the press

2004– wealthiest man in Russia, 16 th on Forbes’ list of billionaires 2004– wealthiest man in Russia, 16 th on Forbes’ list of billionaires In prison at least until 2017 In prison at least until 2017

Russian Political Culture Nationality Most important single cleavage in Russia Most important single cleavage in Russia 80% of population is Russian 80% of population is Russian

Chechnya (separatist ethnic movement) Primarily Muslim region of Russia Primarily Muslim region of Russia Contains some valuable resources, such as oil fields Contains some valuable resources, such as oil fields Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly children Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly children

Beliefs and Attitudes Mistrust of Government – result of mistreatment and government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes Mistrust of Government – result of mistreatment and government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still expect the state to take active role in their lives Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still expect the state to take active role in their lives Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions favor market reforms, but many still believe in egalitarianism Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions favor market reforms, but many still believe in egalitarianism Weak Civil Society – Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups Weak Civil Society – Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups