Psychology 3051 Psychology 305A: Theories of Personality Lecture 11 1

Psychology According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the major: (c) stages of personality development? (continued) 2. What are the 3 types of anxiety that Freud proposed? 3. According to psychoanalytic theory, what defense mechanisms do we use to cope with anxiety? 4. What therapeutic methods have emerged from psychoanalytic theory? The Psychoanalytic Perspective 2

By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 3. discuss Freud’s views regarding sex differences in personality development. 1. describe the Stage Theory of Psychosexual Development. 4. distinguish between reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety describe the personality types associated with fixation at distinct stages of psychosexual development. 3

7. identify the therapeutic goal psychoanalysis discuss the process of “dream work.” 5. identify and generate examples of defense mechanisms. 8.describe the techniques of psychoanalysis. 6. discuss the association between the use of distinct defense mechanisms and psychological adjustment. 4

Psychology Phallic Stage  3 – 5 years.  Erogenous zone: Genital region  Sexual impulses are largely expressed through self- stimulation of the genital organs.  Main conflict is referred to as the Oedipus Complex for boys and the Electra Complex for girls. 5 According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the major stages of personality development? (continued)

Psychology 3056 (a) Oedipus Complex Boys experience a desire to achieve sexual union with their mothers. This desire leads boys to perceive of their fathers as rivals. Moreover, they come to believe that their fathers will retaliate against them by castrating them.  The assumptions underlying these conflicts are as follows: 6

Psychology 3057 Through identification with their fathers, boys resolve the conflict, internalize the values of their fathers, and gain vicarious satisfaction of their sexual impulses towards their mothers. This fear of castration (i.e., castration anxiety) forces boys to identify with their fathers. 7

Psychology 3058 (b) Electra Complex Girls, too, begin life with a strong attraction towards their mothers. However, when they realize that both they and their mothers do not have penises, they develop contempt and blame their mothers for their perceived deficiency. 8

Psychology 3059 Through identification with their mothers, girls resolve the conflict, internalize the values of their mothers, and gain vicarious satisfaction of their sexual impulses towards their fathers. As their contempt grows, girls shift their affection towards their fathers. Girls develop envy for their father’s penis and, ultimately, experience a desire to achieve sexual union with their fathers. 9

Psychology  Fixation results in poor moral development in both males and females.  Freud believed that females are more likely than males to become fixated at this stage.  Fixation at this stage occurs if the child is unable to identify with the same-sex parent. 10

Psychology Latency Stage  6 years – puberty.  Erogenous zone: Genital region  Sexual impulses are less pronounced. Children direct energy towards learning and peer group activities.  There are no specific conflicts at this time. This stage is one of relative calm, with little psychological growth. 11

Psychology Genital Stage  Puberty – adulthood.  Erogenous zone: Genital region  There are no specific conflicts at this time. Freud described this stage as an ideal, as the stage of “psychosexual maturity.”  Sexual impulses are largely expressed through mutually gratifying sexual interactions with other individuals. 12

Psychology What are the 3 types of anxiety that Freud proposed? Freud described anxiety as an objectless fear—that is, as a feeling of fear that often does not have an obvious cause. 13

Psychology Freud proposed 3 types of anxiety: 1. Reality Anxiety  Also referred to as objective anxiety.  Involves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world. Reflects conflict between the ego and the constraints of external reality.  E.g., fear of wild animals, speeding cars, burning buildings. 14

Psychology Neurotic Anxiety  Involves a fear of being punished for expressing id impulses.  Reflects conflict between the id and the ego.  Stems from childhood experiences of punishment associated with the expression of id impulses. 15

Psychology Moral Anxiety  Involves a fear of one’s own conscience (i.e., retaliation by the superego).  Reflects conflict between the ego and the superego.  Is subjectively experienced as guilt or shame. 16

Psychology Freud argued that anxiety warns the individual that the ego is under threat. The ego can protect itself by (a) removing itself from the threatening situation, (b) inhibiting the expression of id impulses, and/or (c) adhering to the moral codes of the conscience. If these rational strategies are not feasible, the ego may employ irrational strategies or defense mechanisms. 17

Psychology According to psychoanalytic theory, what defense mechanisms do we use to cope with anxiety? Although Freud postulated several defense mechanisms, he maintained that all defense mechanisms share 2 characteristics: 1. All defense mechanisms involve the distortion of reality. 2. All defense mechanisms operate in the unconscious mind. 18

Psychology Freud identified numerous defense mechanisms: 1. Repression  Occurs when desires, impulses, and events that were once recognized by the conscious mind are forced into the unconscious mind because they are threatening. 19

Psychology  Also referred to as “motivated forgetting.”  E.g., Repression of childhood sexual abuse. Williams, 1994: Found that 38% of women who were documented victims of childhood sexual abuse did not recall the abuse. 20

Psychology  Repressed information manifests itself through “slips of the tongue,” dreams, and other defense mechanisms.  Freud maintained that repression is the most fundamental and frequently used defense mechanism. 21

Psychology Denial  Occurs when an individual denies the reality of information that is threatening, despite evidence to the contrary. The information is never consciously accepted.  E.g., Smoking despite evidence linking this behaviour to illness and premature death. 22

Psychology Projection  Occurs when an individual “projects” (i.e., attributes) unconscious, unacceptable qualities onto an external object, typically another person.  E.g., Paranoid personality disorder. 23

Psychology Reaction Formation  Occurs when an individual behaves in a manner that is the direct opposite of his/her unconscious, unacceptable impulses.  Reactive behaviour can be identified by its exaggerated character and its obsessive and compulsive form. 24

Psychology  E.g., Adam, Wright, & Lohr, 1996: Recruited self-identified heterosexual males. Found that participants who were high in homophobia showed a greater increase in penile erection than participants who were low in homophobia. Had participants: (a) complete measures of homophobia and (b) view male homosexual erotic stimuli. 25

Psychology Displacement  Occurs when an individual redirects an unconscious, unacceptable impulse to another object. The “substitute” object is less threatening.  E.g., Redirection of aggressive impulses from one’s employer to one’s child. 26

Psychology Rationalization  Occurs when an individual provides a rational post-hoc explanation for a behaviour that was motivated by unconscious, unacceptable impulses.  E.g., Justification of tax evasion by arguing that the government “wastes money.” 27

Psychology Intellectualization  Occurs when an individual emotionally dissociates from unconscious, unacceptable impulses by thinking about events in a cold, analytical manner.  Also known as “isolation of affect.”  E.g., Seeking factual information about the prevalence of rape and the psychology of rapists after an attack. 28

Psychology Regression  Occurs when an individual abandons mature coping strategies and adopts a strategy that was effective in an earlier stage of development. The individual retreats to immature patterns of gratification.  E.g., Overeating when confronted by a stressor. 29

Psychology Sublimation  Occurs when an individual channels unconscious, unacceptable impulses into socially desirable activities.  E.g., The work of a surgeon or mortician. 30

Psychology  Thought to be the most adaptive defense mechanism. Indeed, Freud believed that some of humankind’s greatest achievements are the result of sublimation.  Psychoanalytic theory would predict that, as society becomes increasingly sexually liberated, art, creativity, and civilization will disintegrate. 31

Your Questionnaire: The Life Styles Index Plutchik et al., 1979; Conte & Apter, 1995, Tori & Emavarchana, 1998 Score 1:Tendency to use denial Score 2:Tendency to use regression Score 3:Tendency to use intellectualization Score 4: Score 5: Score 6: Score 7: Tendency to use reaction formation Tendency to use repression Tendency to use projection Tendency to use displacement 32

DEFENSE MECHANISM MAXIMUM POSSIBLE SCORE MEAN FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS MEAN FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA p VALUE Denial <.01 Regression ns Intellectualization <.001 Reaction Formation <.001 Repression <.001 Projection <.01 Displacement <.05 Mean Score for Each Defense Mechanism: College Students Compared with Schizophrenics Plutchik et al.,

DEFENSE MECHANISM CORRELATION WITH SELF- ESTEEM a CORRELATION WITH ANXIETY b Denial Regression Intellectualization Reaction Formation Repression Projection Displacement Correlations of Ego Defenses with Self-Esteem and Anxiety Plutchik et al., 1979 a Tennessee Self Concept Scale; b Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale 34

Psychology What therapeutic methods have emerged from psychoanalytic theory? Freud did propose a method by which adults could “restructure” their personalities: Psychoanalysis Goal of psychoanalysis: To bring unconscious conflicts to conscious awareness (i.e., insight). Freud primarily used 2 techniques in conducting psychoanalysis: 35

Psychology (a)Free association  Involves having the patient say, without hesitation, whatever comes to his or her mind.  Described by some as “daydreaming out loud.” 36

Psychology In beginning free association, Freud (1913, 1958) would instruct his patients as follows: “ You will notice that as you relate things various thoughts will occur to you which you would like to put aside on the grounds of certain criticisms and objections. You will be tempted to say to yourself that this or that is irrelevant here, or is quite unimportant, or nonsensical, so that there is no need to say it. You must never give in to these criticisms, but must say it in spite of them— indeed, you must say it precisely because you feel an aversion to doing so …. Finally, never forget that you have promised to be absolutely honest, and never leave anything out because, for some reason or other, it is unpleasant to tell it.” 37

Psychology  An analyst must interpret the material provided by the patient in order to identify any unconscious conflicts.  Once identified, the analyst reveals the unconscious conflicts to the patient, allowing him/her to resolve it. 38

Psychology (b) Dream analysis  Involves having the patient recount her or his dreams through free association.  Freud believed that there are 2 types of dream content: Manifest content: Narrative of the dream that is consciously remembered. Latent content: Memories, fantasies, forgotten events, unconscious conflicts that give rise to manifest content. 39

Psychology  Freud maintained that the latent content of a dream is transformed into the manifest content of the dream through “dream work.”  Freud described several specific mechanisms that are involved in dream work: 40

Psychology Condensation: The unconscious compresses several latent elements into a single manifest image. Displacement: The unconscious shifts emphasis away from an important but threatening image to an image that is less threatening E.g., Power and hostility are represented by an ax. E.g., A patient’s abusive father is represented as an old and frail man. 41

Psychology Symbolism: The unconscious uses a common and acceptable image to symbolize an unacceptable latent element. Secondary revision: The unconscious synthesizes the disjointed images that have been created through condensation, displacement, and symbolism into a coherent story (e.g., by adding a setting or plot) E.g., A vagina is represented as a hollow box. 42

Psychology  An analyst must interpret the manifest content of the dream, as described by the patient, in order to identify any unconscious conflicts.  Once identified, the analyst reveals the unconscious conflicts to the patient, allowing him/her to resolve it. 43

Psychology According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the major: (c) stages of personality development? (continued) 2. What are the 3 types of anxiety that Freud proposed? 3. According to psychoanalytic theory, what defense mechanisms do we use to cope with anxiety? 4. What therapeutic methods have emerged from psychoanalytic theory? The Psychoanalytic Perspective 44