Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology Twelfth Edition Shier w Butler w Lewis Chapter 3 Cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

3.1: Introduction The basic organizational structure of the human body is the cell. There are 50-100 trillion cells in the human body. Differentiation is when cells specialize. As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape due to their unique function.

3.2: A Composite Cell Also called a ‘typical’ cell Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Also called a ‘typical’ cell Major parts include: Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell membrane Phospholipid bilayer Flagellum Nucleus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Nucleolus Ribosomes Microtubules Basal body Cell membrane Centrioles Rough Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum Microvilli Secretory vesicles Cilia Golgi apparatus Microtubule Microtubules L ysosomes

Cell Membrane (aka Plasma Membrane) Outer limit of the cell Controls what moves in and out of the cell Selectively permeable Phospholipid bilayer Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic) Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic) Permeable to lipid-soluble substances Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane Proteins: Receptors Pores, channels and carriers Enzymes CAMS Self-markers

a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc. Cell Membrane Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Extracellular side of membrane Glycolipid Carbohydrate Fibrous protein Glycoprotein Cell membrane (b) “Heads” of phospholipid Double layer of Phospholipid molecules “Tails” of phospholipid Cholesterol molecules Globular protein Hydrophobic fatty acid “tail” (a) a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc. Cytoplasmic side of membrane Hydrophilic Phosphate “head”

Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease 3.1 Clinical Application Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Guide cells on the move Selectin – allows white blood cells to “anchor” White blood cell Attachment (rolling) Selectin Integrin – guides white blood cells through capillary walls Carbohydrates on capillary wall Adhesion Adhesion receptor proteins Integrin Important for growth of embryonic tissue Blood vessel lining cell Exit Splinter Important for growth of nerve cells

Cytoplasm Cytosol = water Organelles = solids Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit salad where the Jello is the cytosol and the fruits (oranges, grapes, bananas, maybe walnuts, etc.) are the organelles.

Organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Connected, membrane-bound sacs, canals, and vesicles Transport system Rough ER Studded with ribosomes Smooth ER Lipid synthesis Added to proteins arriving from rough ER Break down of drugs Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Membranes Membranes Ribosomes (b) (c) Ribosomes Free floating or connected to ER Provide structural support and enzyme activity to amino acids to form protein

a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc. Organelles Golgi apparatus Stack of flattened, membranous sacs Modifies, packages and delivers proteins Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Vesicles Membranous sacs Store substances Inner membrane Cristae Mitochondria Membranous sacs with inner partitions Generate energy Outer membrane (a) (b) a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.

a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited Organelles Lysosomes Enzyme-containing sacs Digest worn out cell parts or unwanted substances Centrosome Two rod-like centrioles Used to produce cilia and flagella Distributes chromosomes during cell division Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Peroxisomes Enzyme-containing sacs Break down organic molecules Centriole (cross-section) Centriole (longitudinal section) (a) a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited (b)

Organelles Cilia Short hair-like projections Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cilia Short hair-like projections Propel substances on cell surface Flagellum Long tail-like projection Provides motility to sperm a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc. © Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS

© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited Organelles Microfilaments and microtubules Thin rods and tubules Support cytoplasm Allows for movement of organelles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Microtubules Inclusions Temporary nutrients and pigments Microfilaments © M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited

Disease at the Organelle Level 3.2 Clinical Application Disease at the Organelle Level

Cell Nucleus Control center of the cell Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Nuclear envelope Porous double membrane Separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm Nucleolus Dense collection of RNA and proteins Site of ribosome production Nucleus Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin Fibers of DNA and proteins Stores information for synthesis of proteins Chromatin Nuclear pores (a)

3.3: Movements Into and Out of the Cell Passive (Physical) Processes Require no cellular energy and include: Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Filtration Active (Physiological) Processes Require cellular energy and include: Active transport Endocytosis Exocytosis Transcytosis

Simple Diffusion Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Permeable membrane Solute molecule W ater molecule A B A B A B (1) (2) (3) T ime

Facilitated Diffusion Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier molecule Glucose and amino acids Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Region of higher concentration Transported substance Region of lower concentration Protein carrier molecule Cell membrane

Osmosis Movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Selectively permeable membrane Protein molecule W ater molecule A A B B (1) (2) T ime

Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate enough pressure to move a volume of water Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration of nonpermeable solutes increases (a) Isotonic – same osmotic pressure Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water loss) Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water gain) (b) (c) © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited

Filtration Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes Hydrostatic pressure important in the body Molecules leaving blood capillaries Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Capillary wall Tissue fluid Blood pressure Blood flow Larger molecules Smaller molecules

Active Transport Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Carrier protein Binding site Region of higher concentration Cell membrane Region of lower concentration Phospholipid molecules Transported particle (a) Carrier protein with altered shape Cellular energy (b)

Active Transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump Active transport mechanism Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell 3:2 ratio

Endocytosis Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the substance Three types: Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water Phagocytosis – substance is a solid Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance to bind to a membrane-bound receptor Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cell membrane V esicle Nucleus Nucleolus

Endocytosis Cell membrane Particle Phagocytized particle Vesicle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cell membrane Particle Phagocytized particle Vesicle Nucleus Nucleolus Molecules outside cell Receptor-ligand combination V esicle Receptor protein Cell membrane Cell membrane indenting Cytoplasm (a) (b) (c) (d)

Exocytosis Reverse of endocytosis Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane Contents released outside the cell Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Nucleus

Receptor-mediated endocytosis Transcytosis Endocytosis followed by exocytosis Transports a substance rapidly through a cell HIV crossing a cell layer Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. HIV-infected white blood cells Anal or vaginal canal V iruses bud HIV Receptor-mediated endocytosis Lining of anus or vagina (epithelial cells) Exocytosis Cell membrane Receptor-mediated endocytosis Virus infects white blood cells on other side of lining

3.4: The Cell Cycle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divide Stages: Interphase Mitosis Cytokinesis G2 phase Interphase Prophase Mitosis S phase: genetic material replicates Metaphase Anaphase Telophase G1 phase cell growth Cytokinesis Proceed to division Remain specialized Restriction checkpoint Apoptosis

Interphase Very active period Cell grows Cell maintains routine functions Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic division Phases: G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than DNA S phase – cell replicates DNA

Mitosis Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell Nucleus divides – karyokinesis Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis Phases of nuclear division: Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between centrioles Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms

Mitosis Late Interphase Cell has passed the restriction checkpoint Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Late Interphase Cell has passed the restriction checkpoint and completed DNA replication, as well as replication of centrioles and mitochondria, and synthesis of extra membrane. Early Interphase of daughter cells— a time of normal cell growth and function. (a) Restriction checkpoint Nuclear envelope Chromatin fibers Centrioles Cleavage furrow Aster Prophase Chromosomes condense and become visible. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disperse. Spindle apparatus forms. Microtubules (e) (b) Centromere Spindle fiber Late prophase Chromosomes Sister chromatids Nuclear envelopes Telophase and Cytokinesis Nuclear envelopes begin to reassemble around two daughter nuclei. Chromosomes decondense. Spindle disappears. Division of the cytoplasm into two cells. (d) (c) Mitosis Cytokinesis G1 phase Anaphase Sister chromatids separate to opposite poles of cell. Events begin which lead to cytokinesis. Metaphase Chromosomes align along equator, or metaphase plate of cell. S phase Interphase G2 phase © Ed Reschke

Cytoplasmic Division Also known as cytokinesis Begins during anaphase Continues through telophase Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half

3.5: Control of Cell Division Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types Skin and blood cells divide often and continually Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis provide a mitotic clock Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to volume relationship Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin Contact (density dependent) inhibition Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

© Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Tumors Two types of tumors: Benign – usually remains localized Malignant – invasive and can metastasize; cancerous Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal cells (with hairlike cilia) Two major types of genes cause cancer: Oncogenes – activate other genes that increase cell division Tumor suppressor genes – normally regulate mitosis; if inactivated they are unable to regulate mitosis Cells are now known as “immortal” Cancer cells © Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.;

3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells Stem cell: Can divide to form two new stem cells Self-renewal Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types Progenitor cell: Committed cell Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells Pluripotent

Stem and Progenitor Cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sperm Egg Sebaceous gland cell Progenitor cell Fertilized egg Progenitor cell Skin cell Stem cell Progenitor cell Progenitor cell Stem cell Neuron Progenitor cell Progenitor cell Progenitor cell Astrocyte Progenitor cell Progenitor cell Progenitor cell Bone cells one or more steps Fibroblasts (a connective tissue cells) produces another stem cell (self-renewal) Blood cells and platelets

3.1 From Science to Technology Therapeutic Stem Cells

3.7: Cell Death Apoptosis: Programmed cell death Acts as a protective mechanism Is a continuous process

Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed 3.1: Introduction Define cell. State the range of cell numbers and cells sizes in a human body. State the term for cell specialization. 3.2: A Composite Cell List the three major parts of a composite cell. State the general function of organelles. Explain how the structure of a cell membrane makes possible its function. Describe each type of organelle, and explain its function. Describe the parts of a cell nucleus and their functions.

Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed 3.3: Movement Into and Out of the Cell Explain the various ways that substances move through the cell membrane. Discuss how the mechanisms of crossing cell membranes differ. 3.4: The Cell Cycle Describe the parts of the cell cycle and identify the major activities during each part. Explain why regulation of the cell cycle is important to health. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis. List the stages of mitosis and describe the events of each stage.

Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed 3.5: Control of Cell Division Explain how different types of cells differ in their rate of cells division. State the range of cell divisions a cell typically undergoes. Discuss factors that influence whether or not a cell divides. Explain how cancer arises from too-frequent cell division. Distinguish the two types of genetic control of cancer. 3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells Define differentiation. Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell. Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic information, but different appearances and functions.

Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed 3.7: Cell Death Define apoptosis. Distinguish apoptosis from necrosis. List the steps of apoptosis. Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.

Quiz 3 Complete Quiz 3 now! Read Chapter 4.