Chapter 6 Learning

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize, 1904 studied digestive secretions

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

Pavlov’s Apparatus for Studying Classical Conditioning in Dogs

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning: Respondent Behavior Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical Conditioning: Respondent Behavior learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response after being paired with another stimulus that naturally elicits that response Unconditioned response (UCR): automatic response to a stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally and automatically elicits a response Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS): after repeated pairings with UCS, elicits the same response

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning: Respondent Behavior Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning During Conditioning After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation UCR (salivation) CS CR (salivation)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning UCS (passionate kiss) UCR (sexual arousal) CS (onion breath) CR Kiss)

Classical Conditioning

Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to Learn to Predict Events Learning theorists once believed that the learning in classical conditioning is unintentional and automatic (classic behaviorism). Most contemporary learning theorists now believe classical conditioning involves quite a bit of “mindfulness” because, (through the conditioning process) humans and other animals are learning to reliably predict upcoming events.

Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to Learn to Predict Events Psychologists once believed that the key to acquiring a conditioned response was the sheer number of CS-UCS pairings. However, the order and timing of CS-UCS pairings is also very important because it provides valuable information about the upcoming occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Utility of classical responding: Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 1

Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 2

Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 3

Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning Acquisition the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning Extinction: gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Produce the Conditioned Response Stimulus generalization: tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

Generalization Drops of saliva in 30 seconds 60 50 40 30 20 10 Hind Hind paw Pelvis Shoulder Front Thigh Trunk Foreleg Part of body stimulated

After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Produce the Conditioned Response Higher-order conditioning: neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus

Animals Differ in What Responses Can Be Classically Conditioned Early learning theorists assumed that the principles of conditioning were similar across all species, but subsequent research indicates that this assumption is incorrect. Animals often differ in what responses can be conditioned. In some animals, some responses can be conditioned much more readily to certain stimuli than to others. An animal’s biology steers it toward certain kinds of conditioning.

Taste aversion study by Garcia and Koelling Rats learned to avoid a light-noise combination when it was paired with electric shock, but not when it was followed by X rays that made them nauseous. In contrast, rats quickly learned to avoid flavored water when it was followed by X rays, but they did not readily acquire an aversion to this same water when it was followed by shock. It is also adaptive that in taste aversion, strong conditioning develops despite the long delay between the CS (the taste) and the UCS (the nausea).

Biological Constraints on Taste Aversion in Rats

Animals Differ in What Responses Can Be Classically Conditioned Phobias: exaggerated and irrational fears of objects or situations Such intense fear reactions often develop through classical conditioning. We can develop a phobia toward anything, but some objects (snakes) or situations elicit phobic reactions more easily than others.

Nausea Conditioning among Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CR

Little Albert’s Fear Conditioning UCS (loud noise) UCR (fear) CS (rat) CR Stimulus similar to rat (such as rabbit) Conditioned fear (generalization)

Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology

Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed by Consequences Edward Thorndike ‘s Law of Effect: the relationship between behavior and its consequences So named because behavior becomes more or less likely based on the effect it has in producing desirable or undesirable consequences.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect Rewarded behavior is likely to recur E. L. Thorndike

Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed by Consequences B. F. Skinner made the law of effect the cornerstone for his influential theory of learning, called operant conditioning. According to Skinner, the organism’s behavior is “operating” on the environment to achieve some desired goal. Operant conditioning: learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment

Operant Conditioning Operant Chamber (“Skinner Box”) soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains a device to record responses

Skinner Box

Shaping Reinforces Closer Approximations to Desired Behavior Shaping (or the method of successive approximations): teaching a new behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior

A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows The fundamental principle of behaviorism is that rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated. This is known as reinforcement in operant conditioning. It also states the positive side of Thorndike’s Law of Effect.

A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows Primary versus secondary reinforcers Primary reinforcers: innately reinforcing—satisfy biological needs. Secondary reinforcers: learned and become reinforcing when associated with a primary reinforcer

A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows Positive and negative reinforcers Positive reinforcers: strengthen a response by presenting a positive stimulus after a response Negative reinforcer: strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus after a response

Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive and Negative Punishment

Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates Continuous reinforcement leads to the fastest learning. The biggest problem with continuous reinforcement is that when it ends, extinction occurs rapidly.

Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates Partial reinforcement has an important effect on your continued performance because being reinforced only once in a while keeps you responding vigorously for longer periods of time than does continuous reinforcement.

Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates Fixed-interval schedules: reinforce the first response after a fixed-time interval has elapsed Fixed-ratio schedules: reinforce a response after a specified number of nonreinforced responses Variable-interval schedules: reinforce the first response after a variable-time interval has elapsed Variable-ratio schedules: reinforce a response after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

Schedules of Reinforcement

Accidental Reinforcement Can Cause Superstitious Behavior Superstitious behavior: learned because it happened to be followed by a reinforcer, even though this behavior was not the cause of the reinforcer. Skinner trained superstitious behavior in hungry pigeons. He reasoned that when reinforcement occurred, it would be paired with whatever response the pigeons had just performed. Instances of accidental reinforcement triggering superstitious behavior is common among people.

Punishment Should Be Used Only under Certain Circumstances Punishment: The process by which a consequence decreases the probability of the behavior that it follows.

Punishment Should Be Used Only under Certain Circumstances To be effective in reducing unwanted behaviors: The punishment must be prompt, It must be relatively strong, and It must be consistently applied. Alternative to punishment of undesirable behavior: Allow undesirable actions to continue without either positive or negative consequences until they are extinguished

Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it Overlooks Genetic Predispositions Biological constraints on learning As with classical conditioning, an animal’s biology can restrict its capacity for operant conditioning. Species-specific behavior patterns can interfere with operant conditioning, a genetic constraint called instinctive drift.

Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it Overlooks Cognitive Processes Latent learning: learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until sufficient reinforcement is provided Learning can occur without any reinforcement, something that the theory of operant conditioning assumed was not possible.

Latent Learning

Operant Conditioning Theory Overlooks Cognitive Processes Learned helplessness: the passive resignation produced by repeated exposure to aversive events that cannot be avoided Here again, in contradiction to behaviorist theory, research demonstrated that mental processes play a significant role in learning.

Applications of Operant Conditioning Structure and feedback in learning – immediate reinforcement Defined performance goals and immediate reinforcement at work Parenting – reward good behavior, ignore whining, time-out

Observational Learning learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others The others whom we observe and imitate are called models. Observational learning helps children learn how to behave in their families and in their cultures.Yet, what about the learning that occurs without direct experience?

Social Learning Theory-Albert Bandura Social learning theory says that people learn social behaviors mainly through observation and cognitive processing of information, rather than through direct experience. Learning the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else is known as vicarious conditioning.

Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation Bobo doll studies: the first set of experiments demonstrating the power of observational learning in eliciting aggression. Research demonstrates that children are less likely to imitate the actions of punished aggressors.

Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation Bandura believes children observe and learn aggression through many avenues, but the three principal ones are: Families: where adults use violence Communities: where aggression is considered to be a sign of manhood, especially among males Media: principally television and the movies

Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation Research indicates that aggressive behavior in children is significantly reduced when they spend less time watching violent television shows and playing violent video games.