Chapter Twelve Work and Leisure: Occupational and Lifestyle Issues in Young and Middle Adulthood

12.1 Occupational Selection & Development: Learning Objectives How do people view work? How do occupational priorities vary with age? How do people choose their occupations? What factors influence occupational development? What is the relation between job satisfaction and age?

The Meaning of Work Most people work to make a living but also find meaning in their work Meaning-mission fit: the alignment between one’s personal view of work and the company’s missions Greater alignment can have multiple self and other benefits Personal fulfillment is derived from work in 4 ways Developing and becoming self Union with others Expressing self Serving others

Occupational Choice Revisited Holland: people pursue careers that are a good fit between their (a) abilities and (b) interests Six personality types result from (a) and (b) — investigative, social, realistic, artistic, conventional, and enterprising Gender, but few ethnic/racial, differences exist Women are more likely manifest the social, artistic, or conventional type Men and women in the same occupation are similar in personality type

Occupational Choice Revisited (cont’d) Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) The 4-variable version Self-efficacy (perceived ability) Outcome expectations (predicted success) Interest (what one likes) Choice goals (what one desires to achieve) The 6-variable version adds two more factors Support (how environment would help) Barriers (how environment would frustrate one’s career)

Fig 12.1 The 4-variable (paths 1-6) and 6-variable (paths 1-13) versions of the Social Cognitive Career Theory interest/choice models.

Occupational Choice Revisited (cont’d) The 6-variable SCCT model receives better support People will not choose an occupation or career, even though interested, unless they have high self-efficacy External factors (e.g., stereotypes) affect perceptions of self-efficacy

Occupational Development How we advance within chosen occupations depends on many factors, including expectations support from coworkers priorities job satisfaction Vocational maturity: a continuum through the working years reflecting how congruent a person’s occupational behaviors are with what is expected of them at different ages

Super’s Theory Changes in self-concept and adaptation to one’s occupational role progress through five distinct stages Implementation Establishment Maintenance Deceleration Retirement During adulthood, people progress through three developmental tasks Implementation (trying out jobs) Stabilization (making an occupational choice) Consolidation (advancing up the career ladder)

Super’s Theory (cont’d) The three adult developmental tasks overlap with four developmental stages Exploratory (age 15-24) Establishment (age 24-44) Maintenance (age 45-64) Decline (age 65 and beyond) As we stay in a career or change careers, we cycle and recycle through the tasks and stages Aspirations of U.K. 16-year-olds predicted actual occupational attainment at age 33 Supports Super’s theory

Occupational Expectations Occupational and career expectations change over time as a function of changes in self-concept and self-efficacy Ex.: interests change as we experience our occupation as a poor fit or as requiring different types of education Reality shock: what we learned during training (e.g., in a classroom) may not transfer directly into what the “real world” job expects of us or needs us to know to perform the job well

The Role of Mentors and Coaches Compared to any formal training, more experienced workers often communicate informally the most critical kinds of information Mentors help young workers avoid trouble and explain the unwritten rules of the job Mentors often guide young workers, ensuring supervisors notice them and give them credit; help job and pay advancement Mentoring is one way for the mentor to fulfill Erikson’s generativity stage

The Role of Mentors (cont’d) Kram described four phases of the mentoring relationship Initiation Cultivation Separation Redefinition

Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction: the positive feeling resulting from an appraisal of one’s work Increases with age for white collar workers, but decreases for blue collar workers Middle-aged workers are more satisfied with work’s intrinsic rewards than its extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) Satisfaction’s relationship to age is cyclical, depending on how well the job allows one to meet the family responsibilities present at any given age age-related differences in how people balance their lives with work

Figure 12.2 Super’s occupational stages during adulthood.

Alienation and Burnout Alienation: workers’ feelings that their work is meaningless and devalued, or when they see no connection between what they do and the end product Reducing alienation requires workers feeling trust in the organization being involved in decision-making having flexible work schedules having access to employee development or enhancement programs

Alienation and Burnout (cont’d) Burnout: feeling exploited and the depletion of a worker’s energy, motivation, and occupational idealism State of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion Results from job stress Can be avoided by stress-reduction techniques, cognitively restructuring the work, lowering other people’s expectations, and finding other ways to enhance personal growth and identity

Alienation and Burnout (cont’d) Passion: strong inclination toward an activity one likes or loves, values, and in which one invests time and energy Passion model: two types of passion accurately predict who burns out Obsessive passion: uncontrollable urges to engage in work; interferes with positive feelings or satisfaction; leads to conflict in other life areas because person cannot disengage fully from work Harmonious passion: freely choosing to engage in work, and work does not overpower one’s identity

FIG 12.3 Path analytic model of the relationships among passion, satisfaction at work, conflict, and burnout. Harmonious passion predicts higher satisfaction at work, which predicts lower levels of burnout. In contrast, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of conflict, which in turn predicts higher levels of burnout.

12.2 Gender, Ethnicity, and Discrimination Issues: Learning Objectives How do women’s and men’s occupational expectations differ? How are people viewed when they enter occupations that are not traditional for their gender? What factors are related to women’s occupational development? What factors affect ethnic minority workers’ occupational experiences and occupational development? What types of bias and discrimination hinder the occupational development of women and ethnic minority workers?

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection 47% of U.S. workforce is female 60% of all 16-year-old females are working 62% of African-American women work 56% of Latina women work Although more women have entered nontraditional occupations, society still perceives them negatively and disrespects them, describing them as being cold, bitter, quarrelsome, selfish, deceitful, devious with men still preferring to date women who work in traditional settings

Gender Differences in Occupational Selection (cont’d) People are less likely to perceive sexual coercion as harassing when directed to women in nontraditional occupations Women themselves are less likely to see themselves as having been sexually harassed when working in a nontraditional field

Women and Occupational Development More recent generations of women do negotiate their salaries, benefits, and work environments However, women of these generations still tend to commit more to traditional jobs Women working in traditional jobs report increased financial and emotional stress associated with family obligations Working mothers are not seen as team players or being able to do the tough work

Women and Occupational Development (cont’d) Female professionals leave jobs for two reasons: they see the organization as supporting masculine values rather than women’s preference for ones valuing relationships, interdependence, and collaboration alienating, where workers are disconnected from each other and where the work lacks meaning

Ethnicity and Occupational Development No ethnic group differences in women choosing nontraditional occupations Compared to European Americans, African-American women choosing nontraditional careers seek more formal training, becoming overqualified report lower levels of leadership aspiration Latinas may unnecessarily limit their career choices due to perceptions of career barriers and myths

Ethnicity and Occupational Development (cont’d) Women more favorably perceive organizations that are responsive and communicative regarding ethnic minorities’ needs Compared to European Americans, African-American managers report negatively on their careers and the organizations treatment of them more career dissatisfaction, lower performance evaluations, and too quickly reaching promotion plateaus All ethnic groups benefit the most from same-ethnicity mentors, but many minorities still receive cross-ethnic mentoring

Bias and Discrimination Gender bias Only 15 women are CEOs in the Fortune 500 In 2010’s U.S. elections, the number of women in Congress declined Gender discrimination: denying someone a job based on their gender Glass ceiling: the promotional level above which women may not go Glass cliff: women obtaining a precarious promotion, e.g., in times of an organizational crisis

Bias and Discrimination (cont’d) Gender bias (cont’d) Men at the top keep women out of high- status jobs Women are paid, on average, 80% of what men in the same positions are paid

Fig 12. 4 Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s Fig 12.4 Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by age, 1979–2009.

Bias and Discrimination (cont’d) Needed to reduce the gender bias and gap are women digging deep into the organization to make informed decisions women getting necessary support, resources, and buy-in; also, showing one makes a difference to the company companies must value women’s competencies (e.g., interpersonal and democratic orientations), make men more comfortable with female colleagues, and provide mentoring to women

Bias and Discrimination (cont’d) To reduce pay inequities, organizations should encourage women to negotiate salaries more effectively rethink using the number of hours worked as the main measure of productivity value women’s competencies create more work options for working mothers end gender discrimination in the workplace

Sexual Harassment Women in the workplace report being sexually harassed (28%+) or its potential (58%) 16% of formal legal charges involve sexual harassment of men U.S. women judged specific acts as more sexually harassing than did men, whereas there was no gender effect in other cultures Victims are most often young, single, or divorced Research shows that harassment results in negative emotional, mental health, and job-related outcomes Federal law protects men and women from sexual harassment

Age Discrimination Age discrimination: denying a job or promotion to an individual solely based on age Age discrimination usually occurs when employees rather than HR make the hiring decision Federal law prohibits this practice for workers over the age of 40 People must be hired based on their ability Age cannot be even an indirect factor in job performance ratings Nonetheless, older people commonly are offered retirement incentives to stop working and stereotyped beliefs affect their job performance

12.3 Occupational Transitions: Learning Objectives Why do people change occupations? Is worrying about potential job loss a major source of stress? How does job loss affect the amount of stress experienced?

Occupational Transitions The reasons people leave their jobs are varied Unhappy with the work Obsolete skills Economic trends Pursuing additional training or education Retraining workers Career plateauing occurs when there is a lack of opportunity or when a person decides not to seek advancement The retraining of mid-career and older workers emphasizes the need for lifelong learning

Occupational Insecurity Economic conditions in the U.S. have resulted in many people losing jobs Many people experience feelings of insecurity People who worry about their jobs tend to have poorer mental and physical health

Occupational Insecurity (cont’d) Even if their job is not in jeopardy, people who worry about job loss suffer poorer well-being People’s coping strategy predicts how stressed they will feel about job loss regardless of whether they have or have not been laid off Emotion-focused coping: trying to make oneself feel better about a stressful situation or denying their feelings; results in greater stress. Problem-focused coping: recognizing the problem and doing something to fix it

Coping with Unemployment Unemployment often results in declines in physical and mental health plus self-esteem Middle-aged men are more susceptible to the negative effects of unemployment Unemployment rates are higher for ethnic minority groups than for European Americans. Unemployment-related stress similarly affects all ethnic groups

Figure 12.5 Psychological and physical well-being after losing one’s job is affected by many variables.

Coping with Unemployment (cont’d) Recommendations Approach job loss with a healthy sense of urgency Consider next career move and what must be done to achieve it, even if there are no immediate prospects Admit and react to change as soon as you realize it is there Be cautious of stop-gap employment Identify a realistic goal and list the steps needed to achieve it

12.4 Work and Family: Learning Objectives What are the issues faced by people who care for dependents? How do partners view the division of household chores? What is work-family conflict? How does it affect couples’ lives?

The Dependent Care Dilemma Employed caregivers revisited Many mothers have to return to work after the birth of a baby 57% of married and single mothers with children ≤ 1 year old work for pay Some women struggle with the dilemma of financial need vs. caring for their children Some women feel the need to return to work as a result of attachment to their work Stage of the lifecycle and gender both affect perceptions of ideal working hours

Figure 12.6 The ideal number of hours that men want to work stays about the same regardless of whether they have children; women’s ideal number of hours depends on whether they have children and how old the children are.

Employed Caregivers (cont’d) U.S. women are punished even for taking short leaves Swedish women also are punished for taking long leaves although living in a women-friendly country 80% of women spend 23 hours/week caring for parents and 70% contribute money Caring for dependents negatively affects stress levels career opportunities and promotions coping abilities

Dependent Care and Effects on Workers Women caregivers experience greater problems than men Problems can be ameliorated by providing good partner or family support systems women with high control over their jobs (e.g., schedules)

Dependent Care and Employer Responses Backup care: emergency care for dependents preventing employee from missing work Backup care results in less work-family conflict, lower absenteeism, and higher job satisfaction only when organizations adopt a justice approach Sympathetic and supportive supervisors Support for family and childcare issues Also helpful are job sharing, nursery facilities, better job security, autonomy, lower productivity demands, and flexible schedules

Juggling Multiple Roles Dividing household chores Women still perform the lion’s share of housework Men are contributing more since 1970, but mostly on weekends and regardless of whether their wives work Men endorsing feminine or androgynous rather than masculine gender roles do contribute more Unequal division of labor causes the most arguments and most unhappiness in dual-earner couples Men do perform more household chores the longer their wives have been in the workforce

Juggling Multiple Roles (cont’d) Dividing household chores (cont’d) Satisfaction with the division of household labor is higher for men when equitably divided and based on the number of hours spent, especially if they spend few hours women when men are willing to perform women’s traditional chores (e.g., cooking, childcare)

Dividing Household Chores (cont’d) European-American men help with chores less than Latino- or African-American men In dual-earner couples, African-American women are twice as likely as men to feel overburdened with housework and dissatisfied with family life Mexican-American men born in Mexico help out more especially when their wives earn more of the family’s income Navajo women not living on a reservation do more of the traditional chores, but men and women share equally in home maintenance Women report spending more time on housework than do men in several world countries

FIG 12. 7 International perspective on gender differences in housework FIG 12.7 International perspective on gender differences in housework. Mean housework hours in selected countries.

Work-Family Conflict 60% of married couples with children are dual-income earners Highest stress level and work-family conflict is when there are at least two preschool children in the home Cross-cultural data suggests that work- and parenting-related burnout is more likely to affect women

Work-Family Conflict (cont’d) Women are most bothered when husbands are unwilling to do “women’s work” The inequitable division of household labor reflects past socialization experiences Dual-earner couples have difficulty finding time for each other Enjoying time together and spending it on shared activities is more important than the amount of time

Work-Family Conflict (cont’d) Work need not negatively affect family life if both partners’ work schedules allow for coordination of childcare and other home responsibilities Work-family conflict can be reduced by keeping open lines of communication between partners teaching children that men and women are equally responsible for household chores

12.5 Leisure Activities: Learning Objectives What activities are leisure activities? How do people choose among them? What changes in leisure activities occur with age? What do people derive from leisure activities?

Types of Leisure Activities Leisure: discretionary activities including simple relaxation and those for enjoyment or creative pursuits *Cultural *Crafts *Games *Physical *Technology *Social-Private *Social-public *Religious *Travel *Experiential *Developmental *TV Choice of leisure activities depends upon perceived competence, psychological comfort health, income, transportation, education, social characteristics, interests, and abilities Depression and dementia increase as frequency of leisure activities decreases

Developmental Changes in Leisure Young adults participate in a greater range of, and more intense, activities Middle-aged adults’ leisure activities are home- and family-oriented and less physically strenuous Engagement in, and preferences for, types of leisure activities is stable from young to older adulthood

Consequences of Leisure Activities Participation in leisure activities is related to well-being, mental health strengthens feelings of attachment to, and satisfaction with, partners, family, and friends allows exploration of interpersonal relationships and approval seeking improves social acceptance, friendships, and acceptance of differences in persons with disabilities serves as a personal transformation vehicle

Consequences of Leisure Activities (cont’d) Participation in leisure activities (cont’d) is a primary coping strategy, lessening effects of unforeseen negative events or stress by distracting us from the negative promoting optimism about the future because leisure itself is pleasant connecting us to our personal past can create family conflict if taken to extremes High post-vacation workloads can largely undermine a vacation’s benefits promote mood or sleep deficits even after a restful vacation