Contemporary Theories of Sexuality

Understanding and Explaining Sexuality Why would a young man marry an older woman? Why are some people sexually attracted to members of the same gender? Why would a young teenager want to have a baby? How could someone become aroused by being whipped? Like any area of human behavior, we want to understand and explain sexuality. We do this informally quite often. For example, how would you answer the following?

Cyclic Nature of Research Research leads to the discovery of many “facts.” Facts are organized through the development of “theories” Theory – a set of non-contradictory statements which help us organize observations and make predictions, and guide research to discover more facts. As that cycle continues, our theory (if correct) helps us to understand and explain the phenomena under investigation. Scientists must be systematic in their approach to understanding and employ a variety of research methods in that quest.

Tentative Explanations Theories, however, are always tentative explanations. As such, they are subject to criticism and debate… there is no ONE theory to explain human sexuality. Consequently, we will examine four major contemporary theoretical approaches. Let’s take a look at each.

The Evolutionary Approach Sexuality is viewed in terms of “survival value” for the evolutionists. Gregor Mendal, the father of genetics, discovered genes transmit inheritance of biological characteristics (e.g., eye color). Charles Darwin, the father of evolution theory, argued that species evolve as a result of genetic variation and “natural selection:”

The Evolutionary Approach (con’t) Genetic variation results in different biological characteristics. Given a set of environmental pressures (i.e., conditions), some of those characteristics may be more or less adaptive.

The Evolutionary Approach (con’t) Individuals with adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce offspring (i.e., have greater reproductive fitness) and are considered to have greater fitness. Adaptive genes will be passed on to offspring and non- adaptive genes will be selected out of the gene pool. The evolutionary approach attempts to understand and explain aspects of sexuality in term of “ultimate causes” of behavior (i.e., why they came to be)… why they increase reproductive success.

The Evolutionary Approach (con’t) Why, if homosexuals do not reproduce because of a same- gender partner, would homosexual behavior be genetically adaptive? How might the Evolutionary Approach explain the following?

The Psychoanalytic Approach Conscious – that which we are currently aware. Preconscious – that which we are not currently aware, but can bring to our awareness when we choose. Unconscious – that which we are unaware and cannot typically become aware. The psychoanalytic approach attempts to understand and explain sexuality in terms of unconscious conflicts and impulses, emphasizing the influence of early childhood experiences. Freud postulated there were three levels of awareness or “consciousness:”

The Psychoanalytic Approach (con’t) Libido – psychic energy that sustains life instincts (eros), rather than death instincts (thanatos). Id – biological instincts (i.e., hunger, thirst, sex, etc.). Ego – the reality component. Superego – our moral component. Freud argued our personality consists of three components, fueled by a source of energy:

The Psychoanalytic Approach (con’t) Oral (birth - 1yr.) – mouth is focus of gratification and ego begins to develop. Anal (2 - 3yrs.) – anus is focus of gratification and superego begins to develop. Phallic (4 - 5yrs.) – Oedipal and Electra Complexes emerge and must be resolved. Each of us passes through a series of stages of development in which areas of our body are the focus of gratification for sexual impulses. Too little or too much gratification may result in a fixation at that stage which could be manifested in adult behavior.

The Psychoanalytic Approach (con’t) Latency Period (6 - 12yrs.) – not a psychosexual stage, but a time of relative calm during which we learn many of the necessary behaviors and knowledge for adult life (i.e., formal schooling). Genital Stage (13yrs. - ) – reemergence of Oedipal and Electra Complexes whose successful resolution results in “normal” heterosexual behavior and choices of partner. Many parts of Freud’s theory have not been tested or, those that have been tested, have not always received support. Still, his theory has proven very influential in explaining sexual and non-sexual behavior (e.g., gender identify).

The Learning Approaches Learning approaches attempt to understand and explain sexuality in terms of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning (i.e., observational learning/modeling). During Conditioning UCS UCR + NS After Conditioning CS CR Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (con’t) Extinction – cessation of the CS-CR association with repeated presentation of the CS in the absence of the UCR. Spontaneous recovery – reappearance of CR when presented the CS following a period of rest. Pavlov identified a variety of related effects that can play a role in behavior: How do objects come to arouse us?

Classical Conditioning (con’t) UCS UCR (attractive sexual arousal man/woman) + NS (cologne/ perfume) CS CR (cologne/ sexual arousal perfume) With repeated exposure to the cologne/perfume only (i.e., a friend who wears it, but does not arouse you), extinction will occur. After a period of time without smelling the cologne/perfume, spontaneous recovery may occur and you will become aroused once again.

Operant Conditioning A response, followed by a reinforcer (either positive or negative) will increase the probability of that response occurring again. Extinction will occur if the reinforcer is withheld. Spontaneous recovery will occur with a period of rest as well. For many, operant conditioning is a more pervasive and powerful means of learning than is classical conditioning: Why do men use corny “pick-up” lines?

Operant Conditioning (con’t) There are instances in which classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both present (e.g., fetishes). For example, how might someone become aroused by the sight of “leather?” UCS UCR (attractive sexual arousal man/woman) + NS (leather jacket) CS CR (leather sexual arousal jacket) Discrim. Stimulus Operant Reinforcement (Sexual arousal) (Masturbation) (Orgasm)

Social Learning Social learning theorists incorporate thoughts and intentions of individuals and the influence of thoughts about others. Observational learning or modeling is one way in which we can learn behaviors without receiving direct reinforcement. If we see someone being reinforced for acting in a particular manner, we may act that way. If we see someone being punished for acting in a particular manner, we may not act that way. Why do people dress the way they dress?

The Sociological Approach socialization processes (e.g., learning sex roles, child- rearing practices, etc.). cultural beliefs (e.g., religious practices, nuclear/extended family, etc.). norms (i.e., appropriate behavior in situations). Sociological approaches attempt to understand and explain sexuality in terms of: Explanations are based on the assumption that cultures attempt to maintain social stability by establishing norms of behavior which foster stable social relationships.

The Sociological Approach (con’t) “Scripts” are cognitive representations of those norms: they allow behavior to be organized and predictable. Scripts can be of three types: societal – guidelines for proper behavior in a particular situation (e.g., a funeral). interpersonal – guidelines for our social interactions with others (e.g., employer/employee relations). intrapsychic – ideas and images of which we think in the privacy of our minds (e.g., how you might initiate a meeting with someone to whom you are attracted).

Conclusion Each of those theoretical approaches provide unique and complementary views of sexual behavior. No one theoretical approach can explain all behavior, but each can help us understand behavior at different levels of interest or concern (i.e., biological, psychological, or social/cultural).