How is psychology different from philosophy?

What are the Goals of Psychology as a Science? Attempts to: Describe behavior Explain behavior Predict behavior Control behavior Uses scientific method, not common sense.

Science vs. Common Sense Objective data collection Subjective data collection Systematic observation Hit or miss observation Reliance on evidence Ignores counterevidence

Science versus Pseudo-Science Systematic Testable Reliable Unbiased Self-Correcting

Extending Evidence Specific truths are deduced from general truths General truths are induced from specific truths

Science & Proof A deduction is proven if the general premise is true and the logic is valid. An induction goes beyond the known data, and thus can never be proven. Science does not prove things, because all information about the outside observable world is inductive.

Science Terminology: Hypothesis - a possible way things could be Theory - an explanation for the way things are, usually supported by a lot of data. Advantages of science: Scientific methods are deductive Science is more systematic, and less subject to human bias

Judging Theories Fit to the data Quality of the data Ability to predict Ability to explain Ability to control

Pseudo-science Why people believe: People like excitement People are prone to wishful thinking People are naïve and trusting People remember hits, ignore misses

Psychological Research Two forms of psychological research: Basic research seeks answers for the purpose of increasing knowledge. e.g. What role do the frontal lobes play in memory? Applied research seeks answers for specific problems. e.g. What types of memory strategies and rehabilitation strategies are most effective for people with frontal lobe injuries?

Basic Cognitive Psychology Research Baldo et al. (1998)

Basic Cognitive Psychology Research LEFT Baldo et al. (1998)

Applied Cognitive Psychology

The Scientific Method

The Experiment An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.” “Exposure to marijuana increases appetite.”

Experimental Variables To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: Cause: Independent variable (IV) marijuana: plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) Effect: Dependent variable (DV) appetite: grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis.

Experimental Issues Controls are important for determining causality the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment. placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math can be controlled using double blind procedures

Non-Experimental Research Naturalistic observation refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat. e.g. observing apes in the wild Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues A case study is an in-depth study of a single person. e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety Correlations refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Correlation Techniques The correlation technique assesses the degree of association between 2 variables. Correlations vary in direction: Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) Correlations also vary in strength of the relationship. (-1 to 1)

Interpreting Correlations Fig. 1.5

Correlation Take Home Line: Correlation does NOT imply causation!

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study 1963 social psychology experiment, subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning” Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experiment This study, and other factors, led to much more stringent APA research guidelines

What are APA Ethical Guidelines for human participants? informed consent awareness of risks confidentiality deception can be used ONLY if benefits justify it and there is no other way to do the study 48

What are APA Ethical Guidelines for animal subjects? Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is available. 49

Ethical Issues in Research Respecting the rights of human research participants involves: Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant. Confidentiality of study information must be maintained. Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the participants at the end of the study. Deception involving participants must be justified. Animal research must be justified and must minimize discomfort and pain.

Modern Psychology Views Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

Modern Psychology Views Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior

Take Home Concepts Hypothesis What type of study? experimental, correlational, naturalistic observation, case study Independent variable(s) (IV) Dependent variable(s) (DV) Control group Were participants randomly sampled and assigned? Ethical concerns Potential experimenter and participant bias