Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Psychosocial Stages During Infancy and Toddlerhood Erikson’s Stage Needed from Caregivers Basic trust vs. mistrust (first year) Responsiveness Sympathetic, loving balance of care Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (second year) Suitable guidance and reasonable choices Reasonable expectations for impulse control

First Appearance of Basic Emotions Happiness Smile: from birth Social smile: 6–10 weeks Laugh: 3–4 months Anger and sadness General distress: from birth Anger: 4–6 months Sadness: response to disrupted caregiver–infant communication Fear First fears: second half of first year Stranger anxiety: most frequent expression of fear

Responding to Emotions of Others Matching feeling tone of caregiver Sensitivity to structure and timing of face-to-face interactions: 3–4 months Social referencing: 8–10 months © Dragon Images/Shutterstock

Social Referencing Reliance on a trusted person’s emotional reactions to appraise an uncertain situation Used by caregivers to teach children how to react to everyday events © alexpro9500/Shutterstock

Self-Conscious Emotions Appear between ages 1½ and 3 years: Shame Embarrassment Guilt Pride Envy Require awareness of self as separate and unique adult instruction in when to feel emotions © denys_kuvaiev/Fotolia

Emotional Self-Regulation Adjusting one’s own state of emotional intensity Requires effortful control Improves over first year, with brain development Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style teach socially approved ways of expressing feelings © Caroline RW/Shutterstock

Structure of Temperament Thomas and Chess Structure of Temperament Easy: 40% Difficult: 10% Slow-to-warm-up: 15% Unclassified: 35% © Gabriela Insuratelu/Shutterstock

Structure of Temperament Rothbart Structure of Temperament Reactivity: quickness and intensity of emotional arousal attention motor activity Self-regulation: strategies that modify reactivity © ryanking999/Fotolia

Biological Basis of Inhibited Temperament Neurobiological correlates of shyness and sociability: heart rate saliva concentration of cortisol pupil dilation, blood pressure, skin surface temperature Persistence of temperamental style is influenced by child-rearing practices

Stability of Temperament Stability is low in infancy and toddlerhood moderate from preschool years on Temperament develops with age, becoming more stable after age 3 years © Serhiy Kobyakov/Shuttterstock

Heredity and Environment in Temperament Environmental influences Genetic influences Responsible for about half of individual differences Vary with trait and age of individuals studied Environmental influences Nutrition Quality of caregiving Cultural variations Gender stereotyping Role of siblings

Goodness-of-Fit Interaction between temperament and child-rearing style Effective child rearing: good fit with child’s temperament Role of cultural context © Sunny studio-Igor Yaruta/Shutterstock

Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment Preattachment Attachment-in-the- making phase Clear-cut attachment phase separation anxiety Reciprocal relationship with caregiver © oksix/Shutterstock

Measuring Attachment Security Secure: 60% Avoidant: 15% Resistant: 10% Disorganized/ disoriented: 15% © Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock

Cultural Variations in Attachment Security Figure 6.1 A cross-cultural comparison of infants’ reactions in the Strange Situation Figure 6.1 (Adapted from van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988; van Ijzendoorn & Sagi-Schwartz, 2008.)

Factors That Affect Attachment Security Early availability of consistent caregiver Quality of caregiving: parental sensitivity Infant characteristics Parents’ internal working models

Multiple Attachments Fathers Siblings Grandparents Professional caregivers © MNStudio/Shutterstock

Role of Paternal Warmth Often expressed through play Promoted by time spent in physical proximity to babies intimacy and cooperation between parents © Elena Yakusheva/Shutterstock

Siblings and Attachment Majority of children have siblings Arrival of new baby can be stressful for older siblings Siblings typically develop rich emotional relationship Certain temperamental traits (high emotional reactivity) increase likelihood of sibling conflict

Attachment and Later Development Secure attachment is related to later cognitive, emotional, social competence Continuity of caregiving promotes favorable development © michaeljung/Fotolia

Self-Development From birth Self-awareness Aided by capacity for intermodal perception Self-recognition Emerges end of second year Promoted by acting on environment and noting effects Empathy Ability to “feel with” another person Aided by self-awareness

Categorical Self Classifying self and others into social categories on basis of age physical characteristics goodness vs. badness Used to organize behavior, including gender-typed behavior © Andrew Taylor/Shutterstock

Self-Control Effortful control is the capacity to Depends on inhibit impulses manage negative emotions behave in socially acceptable ways Depends on awareness of self as separate, autonomous being confidence in directing own actions memory for caregiver’s directives

Compliance Emerges between 12 and 18 months Awareness of caregivers’ wishes and expectations Ability to obey simple requests and commands Leads to first consciencelike verbalizations Delay of gratification: between ages 1½ and 3 years © BlueOrange Studio/Shutterstock

Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control Respond with sensitivity and support. Give advance notice of change in activities. Offer many prompts and reminders. Reinforce self-controlled behavior. Encourage sustained attention. Support language development. Increase rules gradually.

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