Chapter 5: Memory Slides prepared by Randall E. Osborne, Texas State University-San Marcos, adapted by Dr Mark Forshaw, Staffordshire University, UK 1

The Structure and Processes of Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval 2

Memory Structure Memory storage Sensory memory store iconic memory echoic memory Short-term (working) memory Long-term storage 3

Short-term Memory Short-term (working) memory Rehearsal Chunking (normal limit of seven chunks) Working memory (active) 4

Long-term Memory Long-term memory store Anterograde amnesia (no memory forward) Retrograde amnesia (no memories backward) Hippocampus 5

Remembering through Encoding: Transferring Perceptions into Memories 6

Encoding Memory is not a recording device Elaborative encoding Levels of processing semantic judgments rhyme judgments visual judgments 7

Visual Imagery Encoding Simonides Greek poet perfected visual imagery encoding 8

Orgnizational Encoding Organizational encoding noticing relationships creating categories conceptual groups 9

Storage: Maintaining Memories over Time 10

Memories in the Brain NMDA receptor NMDA receptors become activated: flow of information from one neuron to another NMDA receptors become activated: “sending” neuron releases glutamate “receiving” neuron excited Long-term potentiation (LTP) results enhanced neural processing 11

Retrieval: Bringing Memories to Mind 12

Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues - reinstating the past Encoding specificity principle Cues work best when they re-create the conditions in which the information was first encoded State-dependent retrieval Recalling information learned when drunk is easier when drunk again Transfer-appropriate processing Trying to recall (frontal lobes) and actually recalling (hippocampus) are different 13

Multiple Forms of Memory Implicit memory Explicit memory Procedural memory Semantic memory Episodic memory Priming 14

Multiple Forms of Memory Priming hippocampal region less active than other forms of memory frontal and occipital lobes active during initial exposure (priming) but less active on second exposure priming potentially “saves” processing time 15

Multiple Forms of Memory Semantic memory Episodic memory mental time travel Do animals have episodic memory? 16

Forgetting 17

Forgetting Transience Hermann Ebbinghaus Retroactive interference forgetting with the passage of time Hermann Ebbinghaus nonsense syllables Retroactive interference Proactive interference 18

Forgetting Blocking Tip-of-the-tongue experience More likely as we age 19

Answers 1. Vendetta, 2. Amulet, 3. Obsidian, 4. Cartographer, 5. Cuckold, 6. Scarab, 7. Caduceus, 8. Riga, 9. Hospice, 10. Anachronism 20

Forgetting Absentmindedness Prospective memory Amnesia lapse in attention that results in memory failure Prospective memory Remembering to do things in the future Amnesia Retrograde and anterograde Ageing and Memory Few of us remember early childhood well As we age, processing speeds and efficiencies decline 21

Metamemory Knowing what you know and feeling of knowing Misattributions Suggestibility Intrusion Errors Persistence 22

Forgetting Memory misattribution Source monitoring False recognition primary cause of eyewitness misidentifications Explains déjà vu Source monitoring Internal, external or reality based: checking on yourself False recognition can be reduced with distinctive information 23

Forgetting Bias Consistency bias Change bias Egocentric bias exaggerate difference in how we feel now versus then Egocentric bias self-enhancing 24

Forgetting Suggestibility Elizabeth Loftus Inserting external information into one’s own memories No easy way of knowing how many of our ‘personal’ memories have been ‘tainted’ this way Elizabeth Loftus misleading details: leading questions, e.g. the barn in the video of a sports car Fabricating entire episodes: ‘remembering’ being lost in a shopping centre that never happened 25

Persistence: Failing to Forget Intrusive memories of things we wish we could forget Flashbulb memories vivid both visually and emotionally Occurs in Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Role of amygdala 26

Memory Failures: Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory 27

Seven Sins of Memory Transience Absentmindedness Blocking Memory misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence 28

Seven Sins of Memory 29